From Wikipedia, 1/16/2022Slavery: Background - Part 1

Slavery

From Wikipedia

Slavery and enslavement are both the state and the condition of being a slave,[1][2] who is someone forbidden to quit their service for an enslaver, and who is treated by the enslaver as their property.[3] Slavery typically involves the enslaved person being made to perform some form of work while also having their location dictated by the enslaver. Historically, when people were enslaved, it was often because they were indebted, or broke the law, or suffered a military defeat. The duration of their enslavement might be for life, or for a fixed period of time after which their freedom was granted.[4] Individuals, then, usually became slaves involuntarily, due to force or coercion, although there was also voluntary slavery to pay a debt or obtain money for some purpose. In the course of human history, slavery was a typical feature of civilization,[5] and legal in most societies, but it is now outlawed in all countries of the world, except as punishment for crime.[6][7]

In chattel slavery, the enslaved person is legally rendered the personal property (chattel) of the slave owner. In economics, the term de facto slavery describes the conditions of unfree labour and forced labour that most slaves endure.[8]

In 2019, approximately 40 million people, of whom 26 percent were children, were enslaved throughout the world despite its being illegal. In the modern world, more than 50 percent of enslaved people provide forced labour, usually in the factories and sweatshops of the private sector of a country's economy.[9] In industrialised countries, human trafficking is a modern variety of slavery; in non-industrialised countries, enslavement by debt bondage is a common form of enslaving a person,[8] such as captive domestic servants, forced marriage, and child soldiers.[10]

Terminology

The word slave arrived in English via the Old French sclave. In Medieval Latin the word was sclavus and in Byzantine Greek σκλάβος.[11] Use of the word arose during the Early Medieval Period, when Slavs from Central and Eastern Europe (Saqaliba) were frequently enslaved by Moors from the Iberian Peninsula and North Africa.[12][13][14]

There is a dispute among historians about whether terms such as "unfree labourer" or "enslaved person", rather than "slave", should be used when describing the victims of slavery. According to those proposing a change in terminology, slave perpetuates the crime of slavery in language by reducing its victims to a nonhuman noun instead of "carry[ing] them forward as people, not the property that they were". Other historians prefer slave because the term is familiar and shorter, or because it accurately reflects the inhumanity of slavery, with person implying a degree of autonomy that slavery does not allow.[15]

Chattel slavery

As a social institution, chattel slavery denies the human agency of people, by legally dehumanising them into chattels (personal property) owned by the enslaver; therefore slaves give birth to slaves; the children of slaves are born enslaved, under legal doctrines, such as the 2100 BCE, Code of Ur-Nammu ("4. If a slave marries a slave, and that slave is set free, he does not leave the household. 5. If a slave marries a native [i.e. free] person, he/she is to hand the firstborn son over to his owner. ...") or 1662 CE partus sequitur ventrem ("That which is brought forth follows the womb").[16] Like livestock, they can be bought and sold at will.[17] Legally a chattel slave could be used sexually in any way her owner desired; females had no right to refuse, and in the Antebellum period in the United States many enslaved females were forced to become pregnant and give birth repeatedly, with no say about who impregnated them; their children were usually taken from them and sold, as if they were calves. (See children of the plantation for this practice in the United States.) While some form of slavery was common throughout human history, the specific notion of chattel slavery described above reached its modern extreme in the Americas.[18] Beginning in the 18th century an abolitionist movement saw slavery as a violation of everyone's right as a person ("all men are created equal"), and sought to abolish it. This movement was successful; the last Western country to abolish slavery, Brazil, did so in 1888.[19] The last third-world country to abolish slavery, Mauritania, did not do so until 1981.

Other examples of sexual slavery, often in military contexts, include detention in "rape camps" or "comfort stations," "comfort women", forced "marriages" to soldiers and other practices involving the treatment of women or men as chattel and, as such, violations of the peremptory norm prohibiting slavery.[20][21][22][23]

Forced labour

Flogging a slave fastened to the ground, illustration in an 1853 anti-slavery pamphlet

A poster for a slave auction in Georgia, U.S., 1860

Portrait of an older woman in New Orleans with her enslaved servant girl in the mid-19th century

Main article: Unfree labour

Forced labour, or unfree labour, is sometimes used to describe an individual who is forced to work against their own will, under threat of violence or other punishment, but the generic term unfree labour is also used to describe chattel slavery, as well as any other situation in which a person is obliged to work against their own will, and a person's ability to work productively is under the complete control of another person.[citation needed] This may also include institutions not commonly classified as slavery, such as serfdom, conscription and penal labour. While some unfree labourers, such as serfs, have substantive, de jure legal or traditional rights, they also have no ability to terminate the arrangements under which they work and are frequently subject to forms of coercion, violence, and restrictions on their activities and movement outside their place of work.[citation needed]

Human trafficking primarily involves women and children forced into prostitution and is the fastest growing form of forced labour, with Thailand, Cambodia, India, Brazil and Mexico having been identified as leading hotspots of commercial sexual exploitation of children.[31][32]

Other uses of the term

The word slavery is often used as a pejorative to describe any activity in which one is coerced into performing. Some argue that military drafts and other forms of coerced government labour constitute "state-operated slavery."[40][41] Some libertarians and anarcho-capitalists view government taxation as a form of slavery.[42]

"Slavery" has been used by some anti-psychiatry proponents to define involuntary psychiatric patients, claiming there are no unbiased physical tests for mental illness and yet the psychiatric patient must follow the orders of the psychiatrist. They assert that instead of chains to control the slave, the psychiatrist uses drugs to control the mind.[43] Drapetomania was a psychiatric diagnosis for a slave who did not want to be a slave.[44][45]

Some proponents of animal rights have applied the term slavery to the condition of some or all human-owned animals, arguing that their status is comparable to that of human slaves.[46]

The labour market, as institutionalized under today's market economic systems, has been criticized by mainstream socialists and by anarcho-syndicalists, who utilise the term wage slavery as a pejorative or dysphemism for wage labour.[47][48][49] Socialists draw parallels between the trade of labour as a commodity and slavery. Cicero is also known to have suggested such parallels.[50]

Characteristics

Economics

Economists have modeled the circumstances under which slavery (and variants such as serfdom) appear and disappear. One observation is that slavery becomes more desirable for landowners where land is abundant but labour is scarce, such that rent is depressed and paid workers can demand high wages. If the opposite holds true, then it is more costly for landowners to guard the slaves than to employ paid workers who can demand only low wages because of the degree of competition.[53] Thus, first slavery and then serfdom gradually decreased in Europe as the population grew. They were reintroduced in the Americas and in Russia as large areas of land with few inhabitants became available.[54]

Slavery is more common when the tasks are relatively simple and thus easy to supervise, such as large-scale monocrops such as sugarcane and cotton, in which output depended on economies of scale. This enables systems of labour, such as the gang system in the United States, to become prominent on large plantations where field hands toiled with factory-like precision. Then, each work gang was based on an internal division of labour that assigned every member of the gang to a task and made each worker's performance dependent on the actions of the others. The enslaved chopped out the weeds that surrounded the cotton plants as well as excess sprouts. Plow gangs followed behind, stirring the soil near the plants and tossing it back around the plants. Thus, the gang system worked like an assembly line.[55]

Since the 18th century, critics have argued that slavery retards technological advancement because the focus is on increasing the number of slaves doing simple tasks rather than upgrading their efficiency. For example, it is sometimes argued that, because of this narrow focus, technology in Greece – and later in Rome – was not applied to ease physical labour or improve manufacturing.[56]

The work of the Mercedarians was in ransoming Christian slaves held in North Africa (1637).

Scottish economist Adam Smith stated that free labour was economically better than slave labour, and that it was nearly impossible to end slavery in a free, democratic, or republican form of government since many of its legislators or political figures were slave owners, and would not punish themselves. He further stated that slaves would be better able to gain their freedom under centralized government, or a central authority like a king or church.[57][58] Similar arguments appeared later in the works of Auguste Comte, especially given Smith's belief in the separation of powers, or what Comte called the "separation of the spiritual and the temporal" during the Middle Ages and the end of slavery, and Smith's criticism of masters, past and present. As Smith stated in the Lectures on Jurisprudence, "The great power of the clergy thus concurring with that of the king set the slaves at liberty. But it was absolutely necessary both that the authority of the king and of the clergy should be great. Where ever any one of these was wanting, slavery still continues..."[59]

Identification

Barefooted slaves depicted in David Roberts' Egypt and Nubia, issued between 1845 and 1849

Slave branding, c. 1853

Throughout history, slaves were clothed in a distinctive fashion, particularly with respect to the frequent lack of footwear, as they were rather commonly forced to go barefoot. This was partly for economic reasons, but also served as a distinguishing feature, especially in South Africa and South America. For example, the Cape Town slave code stated that "Slaves must go barefoot and must carry passes."[61] It also puts slaves at a physical disadvantage because of the lack of protection against environmental conditions and in confrontations, thereby making it more difficult to escape or to rebel against their owners.

This was the case in the majority of states. Most images from the respective historical period suggest that slaves were barefoot.[62] Brother Riemer stated, "[the slaves] are, even in their most beautiful suit, obliged to go barefoot. Slaves were forbidden to wear shoes. This was a prime mark of distinction between the free and the bonded and no exceptions were permitted."[63]

According to the Bible, shoes have been considered badges of freedom since antiquity: "But the father said to his servants, Bring forth the best robe, and put [it] on him; and put a ring on his hand, and shoes on [his] feet" (Luke 15:22). This aspect can be viewed as an informal law in areas where slavery existed as any person sighted barefoot in public was assumed to be a slave.

In certain societies this rule continues. The Tuareg still unofficially practice slavery and force their slaves to remain barefoot.[64]

Another widespread practice was branding, either to explicitly mark them as property or as punishment.

Legal rights

Depending upon the era and the country, slaves sometimes had a limited set of legal rights. For example, in the Province of New York, people who deliberately killed slaves were punishable under a 1686 statute.[65] And, as already mentioned, certain legal rights attached to the nobi in Korea, to enslaved people in various African societies, and to black female slaves in the French colony of Louisiana. Giving slaves legal rights has sometimes been a matter of morality, but also sometimes a matter of self-interest. For example, in ancient Athens, protecting slaves from mistreatment simultaneously protected people who might be mistaken for slaves, and giving slaves limited property rights incentivized slaves to work harder to get more property.[66] In the southern United States prior to the extirpation of slavery in 1865, a proslavery legal treatise reported that slaves accused of crimes typically had a legal right to counsel, freedom from double jeopardy, a right to trial by jury in graver cases, and the right to grand jury indictment, but they lacked many other rights such as white adults’ ability to control their own lives.[67]

History

Main article: History of slavery

Some scholars differentiate ancient forms of slavery from the largely race-based slavery. The first type of slavery, sometimes called "just title servitude", was inflicted on prisoners of war, debtors, and other vulnerable people. Race-based slavery grew to immense proportions starting in the 14th century.[68] It was argued even by some contemporary writers to be intrinsically immoral.[69][70][71]

Early history

Corinthian black-figure terra-cotta votive tablet of slaves working in a mine, dated to the late seventh century BC

Slavery predates written records and has existed in many cultures.[5] Slavery is rare among hunter-gatherer populations because it requires economic surpluses and a substantial population density. Thus, although it has existed among unusually resource-rich hunter gatherers, such as the American Indian peoples of the salmon-rich rivers of the Pacific Northwest coast, slavery became widespread only with the invention of agriculture during the Neolithic Revolution about 11,000 years ago.[72]

In the earliest known records, slavery is treated as an established institution. The Code of Hammurabi (c. 1760 BC), for example, prescribed death for anyone who helped a slave escape or who sheltered a fugitive.[73] The Bible mentions slavery as an established institution.[5] Slavery was practiced in almost every ancient civilization.[5] Such institutions included debt bondage, punishment for crime, the enslavement of prisoners of war, child abandonment, and the enslavement of slaves' offspring.[74]

Classical antiquity

Main article: Slavery in antiquity

Africa

Main article: Slavery in ancient Egypt

Slavery existed in Pharaonic Egypt, but studying it is complicated by terminology used by the Egyptians to refer to different classes of servitude over the course of history. Interpretation of the textual evidence of classes of slaves in ancient Egypt has been difficult to differentiate by word usage alone.[75][76] The three apparent types of enslavement in Ancient Egypt: chattel slavery, bonded labour, and forced labour.[77][78][79]

Asia

Slavery existed in ancient China as early as the Shang dynasty.[80] Slavery was employed largely by governments as a means of maintaining a public labour force.[81][82]

Europe

Ancient Greece and Rome

Main article: Slavery in ancient Rome

Records of slavery in Ancient Greece date begin with Mycenaean Greece. Classical Athens had the largest slave population, with as many as 80,000 in the 6th and 5th centuries BC.[83] As the Roman Republic expanded outward, entire populations were enslaved, across Europe and the Mediterranean. Slaves were used for labour, as well as for amusement (e.g. gladiators and sex slaves). This oppression by an elite minority eventually led to slave revolts (see Roman Servile Wars); the Third Servile War was led by Spartacus.

By the late Republican era, slavery had become an economic pillar of Roman wealth, as well as Roman society.[84] It is estimated that 25% or more of the population of Ancient Rome was enslaved, although the actual percentage is debated by scholars and varied from region to region.[85][86] Slaves represented 15–25% of Italy's population,[87] mostly war captives,[87] especially from Gaul[88] and Epirus. Estimates of the number of slaves in the Roman Empire suggest that the majority were scattered throughout the provinces outside of Italy.[87] Generally, slaves in Italy were indigenous Italians.[89] Foreigners (including both slaves and freedmen) born outside of Italy were estimated to have peaked at 5% of the total in the capital, where their number was largest. Those from outside of Europe were predominantly of Greek descent. Jewish slaves never fully assimilated into Roman society, remaining an identifiable minority. These slaves (especially the foreigners) had higher death rates and lower birth rates than natives and were sometimes subjected to mass expulsions.[90] The average recorded age at death for the slaves in Rome was seventeen and a half years (17.2 for males; 17.9 for females).[91]

Middle Ages

Africa

See also: Slavery in Africa

Slavery was widespread in Africa, which pursued both internal and external slave trade.[92] In the Senegambia region, between 1300 and 1900, close to one-third of the population was enslaved. In early Islamic states of the western Sahel, including Ghana, Mali, Segou, and Songhai, about a third of the population were enslaved.[93]

13th-century slave market in Yemen.[94]

During the trans-Saharan slave trade, slaves from West Africa were transported across the Sahara desert to North Africa to be sold to Mediterranean and Middle eastern civilizations. The Indian Ocean slave trade, sometimes known as the east African slave trade, was multi-directional. Africans were sent as slaves to the Arabian Peninsula, to Indian Ocean islands (including Madagascar), to the Indian subcontinent, and later to the Americas. These traders captured Bantu peoples (Zanj) from the interior in present-day Kenya, Mozambique and Tanzania and brought them to the coast.[95][96] There, the slaves gradually assimilated in rural areas, particularly on Unguja and Pemba islands.[97]

Americas

Slavery in Mexico can be traced back to the Aztecs.[98] Other Amerindians, such as the Inca of the Andes, the Tupinambá of Brazil, the Creek of Georgia, and the Comanche of Texas, also practiced slavery.[5]

Slavery in Canada was practiced by First Nations and by European settlers.[99] Slave-owning people of what became Canada were, for example, the fishing societies, such as the Yurok, that lived along the Pacific coast from Alaska to California,[100] on what is sometimes described as the Pacific or Northern Northwest Coast. Some of the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast, such as the Haida and Tlingit, were traditionally known as fierce warriors and slave-traders, raiding as far as California. Slavery was hereditary, the slaves being prisoners of war and their descendants were slaves.[101] Some nations in British Columbia continued to segregate and ostracize the descendants of slaves as late as the 1970s.[102]

Europe

Main articles: Barbary slave trade and Slavery in the Byzantine Empire

Large-scale trading in slaves was mainly confined to the South and East of early medieval Europe: the Byzantine Empire and the Muslim world were the destinations, while pagan Central and Eastern Europe (along with the Caucasus and Tartary) were important sources. Viking, Arab, Greek, and Radhanite Jewish merchants were all involved in the slave trade during the Early Middle Ages.[113][114][115] The trade in European slaves reached a peak in the 10th century following the Zanj Rebellion which dampened the use of African slaves in the Arab world.[116][117]

Slavery in early medieval Europe was so common that the Catholic Church repeatedly prohibited it, or at least the export of Christian slaves to non-Christian lands, as for example at the Council of Koblenz (922), the Council of London (1102) (which aimed mainly at the sale of English slaves to Ireland)[118] and the Council of Armagh (1171). Serfdom, on the contrary, was widely accepted. In 1452, Pope Nicholas V issued the papal bull Dum Diversas, granting the kings of Spain and Portugal the right to reduce any "Saracens (Muslims), pagans and any other unbelievers" to perpetual slavery, legitimizing the slave trade as a result of war.[119] The approval of slavery under these conditions was reaffirmed and extended in his Romanus Pontifex bull of 1455.

Britain

In Britain, slavery continued to be practiced following the fall of Rome, and sections of Hywel the Good's laws dealt with slaves in medieval Wales. The trade particularly picked up after the Viking invasions, with major markets at Chester[120] and Bristol[121] supplied by Danish, Mercian, and Welsh raiding of one another's borderlands. At the time of the Domesday Book, nearly 10% of the English population were slaves.[122] William the Conqueror introduced a law preventing the sale of slaves overseas.[123] According to historian John Gillingham, by 1200 slavery in the British Isles was non-existent.[124]

Slavery had never been authorized by statute within England and Wales, and in 1772, in the case Somerset v Stewart, Lord Mansfield declared that it was also unsupported within England by the common law. The slave trade was abolished by the Slave Trade Act 1807, although slavery remained legal in possessions outside Europe until the passage of the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 and the Indian Slavery Act, 1843.[125]

However, when England began to have colonies in the Americas, and particularly from the 1640s, African slaves began to make their appearance in England and remained a presence until the eighteenth century. In Scotland, slaves continued to be sold as chattels until late in the eighteenth century (on the 2nd May, 1722, an advertisement appeared in the Edinburgh Evening Courant, announcing that a stolen slave had been found, who would be sold to pay expenses, unless claimed within two weeks).[126]

For nearly two hundred years in the history of coal mining in Scotland, miners were bonded to their "maisters" by a 1606 Act "Anent Coalyers and Salters". The Colliers and Salters (Scotland) Act 1775 stated that "many colliers and salters are in a state of slavery and bondage" and announced emancipation; those starting work after 1 July 1775 would not become slaves, while those already in a state of slavery could, after 7 or 10 years depending on their age, apply for a decree of the Sheriff's Court granting their freedom. Few could afford this, until a further law in 1799 established their freedom and made this slavery and bondage illegal.[126][127]

Ottoman Empire

A British captain witnessing the miseries of slaves in Ottoman Algeria, 1815

The Byzantine-Ottoman wars and the Ottoman wars in Europe brought large numbers of slaves into the Islamic world.[128] To staff its bureaucracy, the Ottoman Empire established a janissary system which seized hundreds of thousands of Christian boys through the devşirme system. They were well cared for but were legally slaves owned by the government and were not allowed to marry. They were never bought or sold. The empire gave them significant administrative and military roles. The system began about 1365; there were 135,000 janissaries in 1826, when the system ended.[129]

After the Battle of Lepanto, 12,000 Christian galley slaves were recaptured and freed from the Ottoman fleet.[130] Eastern Europe suffered a series of Tatar invasions, the goal of which was to loot and capture slaves for selling them to Ottomans as jasyr.[131] Seventy-five Crimean Tatar raids were recorded into Poland–Lithuania between 1474 and 1569.[132]

Poland

Slavery in Poland was forbidden in the 15th century; in Lithuania, slavery was formally abolished in 1588; they were replaced by the second serfdom.

Spain and Portugal

Medieval Spain and Portugal were the scene of almost constant Muslim invasion of the predominantly Christian area. Periodic raiding expeditions were sent from Al-Andalus to ravage the Iberian Christian kingdoms, bringing back booty and slaves. In a raid against Lisbon in 1189, for example, the Almohad caliph Yaqub al-Mansur took 3,000 female and child captives, while his governor of Córdoba, in a subsequent attack upon Silves, Portugal, in 1191, took 3,000 Christian slaves.[133] From the 11th to the 19th century, North African Barbary Pirates engaged in Razzias, raids on European coastal towns, to capture Christian slaves to sell at slave markets in places such as Algeria and Morocco.[134][135] The maritime town of Lagos was the first slave market created in Portugal (one of the earliest colonizers of the Americas) for the sale of imported African slaves – the Mercado de Escravos, opened in 1444.[136][137] In 1441, the first slaves were brought to Portugal from northern Mauritania.[137]

By 1552, black African slaves made up 10% of the population of Lisbon.[138][139] In the second half of the 16th century, the Crown gave up the monopoly on slave trade, and the focus of European trade in African slaves shifted from import to Europe to slave transports directly to tropical colonies in the Americas – especially Brazil.[137] In the 15th century one-third of the slaves were resold to the African market in exchange of gold.[140]

Russia

See also: Slavery in Russia

In Kievan Rus and Muscovy, slaves were usually classified as kholops. According to David P. Forsythe, "In 1649 up to three-quarters of Muscovy's peasants, or 13 to 14 million people, were serfs whose material lives were barely distinguishable from slaves. Perhaps another 1.5 million were formally enslaved, with Russian slaves serving Russian masters."[142] Slavery remained a major institution in Russia until 1723, when Peter the Great converted the household slaves into house serfs. Russian agricultural slaves were formally converted into serfs earlier in 1679.[143]

Scandinavia

In Scandinavia, thralldom was abolished in the mid-14th century.[144]

Slave market in Algiers, 1684

In Algiers, the capital of Algeria, captured Christians and Europeans were forced into slavery. In about 1650, there were as many as 35,000 Christian slaves in Algiers.[161] By one estimate, raids by Barbary pirates on coastal villages and ships extending from Italy to Iceland, enslaved an estimated 1 to 1.25 million Europeans between the 16th and 19th centuries.[162][163][164] However, this estimate is the result of an extrapolation which assumes that the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates was constant for a 250-year period:

There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000.[165]

Davis' numbers have been refuted by other historians, such as David Earle, who cautions that true picture of Europeans slaves is clouded by the fact the corsairs also seized non-Christian whites from eastern Europe.[165] In addition, the number of slaves traded was hyperactive, with exaggerated estimates relying on peak years to calculate averages for entire centuries, or millennia. Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records. Middle East expert, John Wright, cautions that modern estimates are based on back-calculations from human observation.[166] Such observations, across the late 16th and early 17th century observers, account for around 35,000 European Christian slaves held throughout this period on the Barbary Coast, across Tripoli, Tunis, but mostly in Algiers. The majority were sailors (particularly those who were English), taken with their ships, but others were fishermen and coastal villagers. However, most of these captives were people from lands close to Africa, particularly Spain and Italy.[167] This eventually led to the bombardment of Algiers by an Anglo-Dutch fleet in 1816.[168][169]

Arab-Swahili slave traders and their captives on the Ruvuma River in East Africa, 19th century

Under Omani Arabs, Zanzibar became East Africa's main slave port, with as many as 50,000 enslaved Africans passing through every year during the 19th century.[170][171] Some historians estimate that between 11 and 18 million African slaves crossed the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, and Sahara Desert from 650 to 1900 AD.[5] [172] Eduard Rüppell described the losses of Sudanese slaves being transported on foot to Egypt: "after the Daftardar bey's 1822 campaign in the southern Nuba mountains, nearly 40,000 slaves were captured. However, through bad treatment, disease and desert travel barely 5,000 made it to Egypt.."[173] W.A. Veenhoven wrote: "The German doctor, Gustav Nachtigal, an eye-witness, believed that for every slave who arrived at a market three or four died on the way ... Keltie (The Partition of Africa, London, 1920) believes that for every slave the Arabs brought to the coast at least six died on the way or during the slavers' raid. Livingstone puts the figure as high as ten to one."[174]

Systems of servitude and slavery were common in parts of Africa, as they were in much of the ancient world. In many African societies where slavery was prevalent, the enslaved people were not treated as chattel slaves and were given certain rights in a system similar to indentured servitude elsewhere in the world. The forms of slavery in Africa were closely related to kinship structures. In many African communities, where land could not be owned, enslavement of individuals was used as a means to increase the influence a person had and expand connections.[175] This made slaves a permanent part of a master's lineage and the children of slaves could become closely connected with the larger family ties.[176] Children of slaves born into families could be integrated into the master's kinship group and rise to prominent positions within society, even to the level of chief in some instances. However, stigma often remained attached and there could be strict separations between slave members of a kinship group and those related to the master.[175] Slavery was practiced in many different forms: debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, and criminal slavery were all practiced in various parts of Africa.[177] Slavery for domestic and court purposes was widespread throughout Africa.

A model showing a cross-section of a typical 1700s European slave ship on the Middle Passage, National Museum of American History.

When the Atlantic slave trade began, many of the local slave systems began supplying captives for chattel slave markets outside Africa. Although the Atlantic slave trade was not the only slave trade from Africa, it was the largest in volume and intensity. As Elikia M’bokolo wrote in Le Monde diplomatique:

The African continent was bled of its human resources via all possible routes. Across the Sahara, through the Red Sea, from the Indian Ocean ports and across the Atlantic. At least ten centuries of slavery for the benefit of the Muslim countries (from the ninth to the nineteenth).... Four million enslaved people exported via the Red Sea, another four million through the Swahili ports of the Indian Ocean, perhaps as many as nine million along the trans-Saharan caravan route, and eleven to twenty million (depending on the author) across the Atlantic Ocean.[178]

The trans-Atlantic slave trade peaked in the late 18th century, when the largest number of slaves were captured on raiding expeditions into the interior of West Africa. These expeditions were typically carried out by African kingdoms, such as the Oyo Empire (Yoruba), the Ashanti Empire,[179] the kingdom of Dahomey,[180] and the Aro Confederacy.[181] It is estimated that about 15 percent of slaves died during the voyage, with mortality rates considerably higher in Africa itself in the process of capturing and transporting indigenous peoples to the ships.[182][183]

Americas

Further information: Atlantic slave trade, Encomienda, Mita (Inca), Slavery in Brazil, Slavery in the United States, and Aztec Slavery

Diagrams of a slave ship and the alignment of captive slaves during the Atlantic slave trade.

Slavery in America remains a contentious issue and played a major role in the history and evolution of some countries, triggering a revolution, a civil war, and numerous rebellions.

In order to establish itself as an American empire, Spain had to fight against the relatively powerful civilizations of the New World. The Spanish conquest of the indigenous peoples in the Americas included using the Natives as forced labour. The Spanish colonies were the first Europeans to use African slaves in the New World on islands such as Cuba and Hispaniola.[184] Bartolomé de las Casas, a 16th-century Dominican friar and Spanish historian, participated in campaigns in Cuba (at Bayamo and Camagüey) and was present at the massacre of Hatuey; his observation of that massacre led him to fight for a social movement away from the use of natives as slaves. Also, the alarming decline in the native population had spurred the first royal laws protecting the native population. The first African slaves arrived in Hispaniola in 1501.[185] England played a prominent role in the Atlantic slave trade. The "slave triangle" was pioneered by Francis Drake and his associates.

Many whites who arrived in North America during the 17th and 18th centuries came under contract as indentured servants.[186] The transformation from indentured servitude to slavery was a gradual process in Virginia. The earliest legal documentation of such a shift was in 1640 where a negro, John Punch, was sentenced to lifetime slavery, forcing him to serve his master, Hugh Gwyn, for the remainder of his life, for attempting to run away. This case was significant because it established the disparity between his sentence as a black man and that of the two white indentured servants who escaped with him (one described as Dutch and one as a Scotchman). It is the first documented case of a black man sentenced to lifetime servitude and is considered one of the first legal cases to make a racial distinction between black and white indentured servants.[187][188][189][190]

After 1640, planters started to ignore the expiration of indentured contracts and keep their servants as slaves for life. This was demonstrated by the 1655 case Johnson v. Parker, where the court ruled that a black man, Anthony Johnson of Virginia, was granted ownership of another black man, John Casor, as the result of a civil case.[191] This was the first instance of a judicial determination in the Thirteen Colonies holding that a person who had committed no crime could be held in servitude for life.[192][193][194][195][196][197][198]

Barbados

Statue of Bussa, who led the largest slave rebellion in Barbadian history.

In the early 17th century, the majority of the labour in Barbados was provided by European indentured servants, mainly English, Irish and Scottish, with enslaved Africans and enslaved Amerindians providing little of the workforce. The introduction of sugar cane from Dutch Brazil in 1640 completely transformed society and the economy. Barbados eventually had one of the world's largest sugar industries.[199]

As the effects of the new crop increased, so did the shift in the ethnic composition of Barbados and surrounding islands. The workable sugar plantation required a large investment and a great deal of heavy labour. At first, Dutch traders supplied the equipment, financing, and enslaved Africans, in addition to transporting most of the sugar to Europe. In 1644, the population of Barbados was estimated at 30,000, of which about 800 were of African descent, with the remainder mainly of English descent. These English smallholders were eventually bought out, and the island filled up with large sugar plantations worked by enslaved Africans. By 1660, there was near parity with 27,000 blacks and 26,000 whites. By 1666, at least 12,000 white smallholders had been bought out, died, or left the island. Many of the remaining whites were increasingly poor. By 1680, there were 17 slaves for every indentured servant. By 1700, there were 15,000 free whites and 50,000 enslaved Africans.

Because of the increased implementation of slave codes, which created differential treatment between Africans and the white workers and ruling planter class, the island became increasingly unattractive to poor whites. Black or slave codes were implemented in 1661, 1676, 1682, and 1688. In response to these codes, several slave rebellions were attempted or planned during this time, but none succeeded. Nevertheless, poor whites who had or acquired the means to emigrate often did so. Planters expanded their importation of enslaved Africans to cultivate sugar cane.

Brazil

Slavery in Brazil began long before the first Portuguese settlement was established in 1532, as members of one tribe would enslave captured members of another.[200]

Later, Portuguese colonists were heavily dependent on indigenous labour during the initial phases of settlement to maintain the subsistence economy, and natives were often captured by expeditions called bandeiras. The importation of African slaves began midway through the 16th century, but the enslavement of indigenous peoples continued well into the 17th and 18th centuries.

During the Atlantic slave trade era, Brazil imported more African slaves than any other country. Nearly 5 million slaves were brought from Africa to Brazil during the period from 1501 to 1866.[201] Until the early 1850s, most enslaved Africans who arrived on Brazilian shores were forced to embark at West Central African ports, especially in Luanda (in present-day Angola). Today, with the exception of Nigeria, the country with the largest population of people of African descent is Brazil.[202]

Slave labour was the driving force behind the growth of the sugar economy in Brazil, and sugar was the primary export of the colony from 1600 to 1650. Gold and diamond deposits were discovered in Brazil in 1690, which sparked an increase in the importation of African slaves to power this newly profitable market. Transportation systems were developed for the mining infrastructure, and population boomed from immigrants seeking to take part in gold and diamond mining. Demand for African slaves did not wane after the decline of the mining industry in the second half of the 18th century. Cattle ranching and foodstuff production proliferated after the population growth, both of which relied heavily on slave labour. 1.7 million slaves were imported to Brazil from Africa from 1700 to 1800, and the rise of coffee in the 1830s further enticed expansion of the slave trade.

Brazil was the last country in the Western world to abolish slavery. Forty percent of the total number of slaves brought to the Americas were sent to Brazil. For reference, the United States received 10 percent. Despite being abolished, there are still people working in slavery-like conditions in Brazil in the 21st century.

Cuba

In 1789 the Spanish Crown led an effort to reform slavery, as the demand for slave labour in Cuba was growing. The Crown issued a decree, Código Negro Español (Spanish Black Codex), that specified food and clothing provisions, put limits on the number of work hours, limited punishments, required religious instruction, and protected marriages, forbidding the sale of young children away from their mothers. The British made other changes to the institution of slavery in Cuba. But planters often flouted the laws and protested against them, considering them a threat to their authority and an intrusion into their personal lives.[203]

The slaveowners did not protest against all the measures of the codex, many of which they argued were already common practices. They objected to efforts to set limits on their ability to apply physical punishment. For instance, the Black Codex limited whippings to 25 and required the whippings "not to cause serious bruises or bleeding". The slave-owners thought that the slaves would interpret these limits as weaknesses, ultimately leading to resistance. Another contested issue was the work hours that were restricted "from sunrise to sunset"; plantation owners responded by explaining that cutting and processing of cane needed 20-hour days during the harvest season.[203]

Those slaves who worked on sugar plantations and in sugar mills were often subject to the harshest of conditions. The field work was rigorous manual labour which the slaves began at an early age. The work days lasted close to 20 hours during harvest and processing, including cultivating and cutting the crops, hauling wagons, and processing sugarcane with dangerous machinery. The slaves were forced to reside in barracoons, where they were crammed in and locked in by a padlock at night, getting about three to four hours of sleep. The conditions of the barracoons were harsh; they were highly unsanitary and extremely hot. Typically there was no ventilation; the only window was a small barred hole in the wall.[204]

Slaves in Cuba unloading ice from Maine, 1832

Cuba's slavery system was gendered in a way that some duties were performed only by male slaves, some only by female slaves. Female slaves in Havana from the 16th century onwards performed duties such as operating the town taverns, eating houses, and lodges, as well as being laundresses and domestic labourers and servants. Female slaves also served as the town prostitutes.

Some Cuban women could gain freedom by having children with white men. As in other Latin cultures, there were looser borders with the mulatto or mixed-race population. Sometimes men who took slaves as wives or concubines freed both them and their children. As in New Orleans and Saint-Domingue, mulattos began to be classified as a third group between the European colonists and African slaves. Freedmen, generally of mixed race, came to represent 20% of the total Cuban population and 41% of the non-white Cuban population.[205]

Planters encouraged Afro-Cuban slaves to have children in order to reproduce their work force. The masters wanted to pair strong and large-built black men with healthy black women. They were placed in the barracoons and forced to have sex and create offspring of “breed stock” children, who would sell for around 500 pesos. The planters needed children to be born to replace slaves who died under the harsh regime. Sometimes if the overseers did not like the quality of children, they separate the parents and sent the mother back to working in the fields.[206]

Both women and men were subject to the punishments of violence and humiliating abuse. Slaves who misbehaved or disobeyed their masters were often placed in stocks in the depths of the boiler houses where they were abandoned for days at a time, and oftentimes two to three months. These wooden stocks were made in two types: lying-down or stand-up types. women were punished, even when pregnant. They were subjected to whippings: they had to lie "face down over a scooped-out piece of round [earth] to protect their bellies."[207] Some masters reportedly whipped pregnant women in the belly, often causing miscarriages. The wounds were treated with “compresses of tobacco leaves, urine and salt."[208]

Haiti

Slavery in Haiti started with the arrival of Christopher Columbus on the island in 1492. The practice was devastating to the native population.[209] Following the indigenous Taíno's near decimation from forced labour, disease and war, the Spanish, under advisement of the Catholic priest Bartolomeu de las Casas, and with the blessing of the Catholic church began engaging in earnest in the kidnapped and forced labour of enslaved Africans. During the French colonial period beginning in 1625, the economy of Haiti (then known as Saint-Domingue) was based on slavery, and the practice there was regarded as the most brutal in the world.

Following the Treaty of Ryswick of 1697, Hispaniola was divided between France and Spain. France received the western third and subsequently named it Saint-Domingue. To develop it into sugarcane plantations, the French imported thousands of slaves from Africa. Sugar was a lucrative commodity crop throughout the 18th century. By 1789, approximately 40,000 white colonists lived in Saint-Domingue. The whites were vastly outnumbered by the tens of thousands of African slaves they had imported to work on their plantations, which were primarily devoted to the production of sugarcane. In the north of the island, slaves were able to retain many ties to African cultures, religion and language; these ties were continually being renewed by newly imported Africans. Blacks outnumbered whites by about ten to one.

Saint-Domingue slave revolt in 1791

The French-enacted Code Noir ("Black Code"), prepared by Jean-Baptiste Colbert and ratified by Louis XIV, had established rules on slave treatment and permissible freedoms. Saint-Domingue has been described as one of the most brutally efficient slave colonies; one-third of newly imported Africans died within a few years.[210] Many slaves died from diseases such as smallpox and typhoid fever.[211] They had birth rates around 3 percent, and there is evidence that some women aborted fetuses, or committed infanticide, rather than allow their children to live within the bonds of slavery.[212][213]

As in its Louisiana colony, the French colonial government allowed some rights to free people of color: the mixed-race descendants of white male colonists and black female slaves (and later, mixed-race women). Over time, many were released from slavery. They established a separate social class. White French Creole fathers frequently sent their mixed-race sons to France for their education. Some men of color were admitted into the military. More of the free people of color lived in the south of the island, near Port-au-Prince, and many intermarried within their community. They frequently worked as artisans and tradesmen, and began to own some property. Some became slave holders. The free people of color petitioned the colonial government to expand their rights.

Slaves that made it to Haiti from the trans-Atlantic journey and slaves born in Haiti were first documented in Haiti's archives and transferred to France's Ministry of Defense and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. As of 2015, these records are in The National Archives of France. According to the 1788 Census, Haiti's population consisted of nearly 40,000 whites, 30,000 free coloureds and 450,000 slaves.[214]

The Haitian Revolution of 1804, the only successful slave revolt in human history, precipitated the end of slavery in all French colonies.

Jamaica

Planting the sugar cane, British West Indies, 1823

Jamaica was colonized by the Taino tribes prior to the arrival of Columbus in 1494. The Spanish enslaved many of the Taino; some escaped, but most died from European diseases and overwork. The Spaniards also introduced the first African slaves.[215]

The Spanish colonists did not bring women in the first expeditions and took Taíno women for their common-law wives, resulting in mestizo children.[216] Sexual violence with the Taíno women by the Spanish was also common.[217][218]

Although the African slave population in the 1670s and 1680s never exceeded 10,000, by 1800 it had increased to over 300,000.

Mexico

In 1519, Hernán Cortés brought the first modern slave to the area.[219] In the mid-16th century, the second viceroy to Mexico, Luis de Velasco, prohibited slavery of the Aztecs. A labour shortage resulted as the Aztecs were either killed or died from disease. This led to the African slaves being imported, as they were not susceptible to smallpox. In exchange, many Africans were afforded the opportunity to buy their freedom, while eventually others were granted their freedom by their masters.[219]

Puerto Rico

When Ponce de León and the Spaniards arrived on the island of Borikén (Puerto Rico), they enslaved Taíno tribes on the island, forcing them to work in the gold mines and in the construction of forts. Many Taíno died, particularly from smallpox, of which they had no immunity. Other Taínos committed suicide or left the island after the failed Taíno revolt of 1511.[220] The Spanish colonists, fearing the loss of their labour force, complained the courts that they needed manpower. As an alternative, Las Casas suggested the importation and use of African slaves. In 1517, the Spanish Crown permitted its subjects to import twelve slaves each, thereby beginning the slave trade on the colonies.[221]

African slaves were legally branded with a hot iron on the forehead, prevented their "theft" or lawsuits that challenged their captivity.[222] The colonists continued this branding practice for more than 250 years.[223] They were sent to work in the gold mines, or in the island's ginger and sugar fields. They were allowed to live with their families in a hut on the master's land, and given a patch of land where they could farm, but otherwise were subjected to harsh treatment; including sexual abuse as the majority of colonists had arrived without women; many of them intermarried with the Africans or Taínos. Their mixed-race descendants formed the first generations of the early Puerto Rican population.[222]

On March 22, 1873, Spain abolished slavery in Puerto Rico. The owners were compensated.

The slaves faced heavy discrimination and had no opportunity for advancement, though they were educated by their masters. The Spaniards considered the Africans superior to the Taíno, since the latter were unwilling to assimilate. The slaves, in contrast, had little choice but to adapt. Many converted to Christianity and were given their masters' surnames.[222]

By 1570, the colonists found that the gold mines were depleted, relegating the island to a garrison for passing ships. The cultivation of crops such as tobacco, cotton, cocoa, and ginger became the cornerstone of the economy.[224] With rising demand for sugar on the international market, major planters increased their labour-intensive cultivation and processing of sugar cane. Sugar plantations supplanted mining as Puerto Rico's main industry and kept demand high for African slavery.[224]

After 1784, Spain provided five ways by which slaves could obtain freedom.[223] Five years later, the Spanish Crown issued the "Royal Decree of Graces of 1789", which set new rules related to the slave trade and added restrictions to the granting of freedman status. The decree granted its subjects the right to purchase slaves and to participate in the flourishing slave trade in the Caribbean. Later that year a new slave code, also known as El Código Negro (The Black Code), was introduced.[225]

Under "El Código Negro", a slave could buy his freedom, in the event that his master was willing to sell, by paying the price sought in installments. Slaves were allowed to earn money during their spare time by working as shoemakers, cleaning clothes, or selling the produce they grew on their own plots of land. For the freedom of their newborn child, not yet baptized, they paid at half the going price for a baptized child.[225] Many of these freedmen started settlements in the areas which became known as Cangrejos (Santurce), Carolina, Canóvanas, Loíza, and Luquillo. Some became slave owners themselves.[222] Despite these paths to freedom, from 1790 onwards, the number of slaves more than doubled in Puerto Rico as a result of the dramatic expansion of the sugar industry in the island.[224]

On March 22, 1873, slavery was legally abolished in Puerto Rico. However, slaves were not emancipated but rather had to buy their own freedom, at whatever price was set by their last masters. They were also required to work for another three years for their former masters, for other colonists interested in their services, or for the state in order to pay some compensation.[226] Between 1527 and 1873, slaves in Puerto Rico had carried out more than twenty revolts.[227][228]

Suriname

Funeral at slave plantation, Dutch Suriname. 1840–1850.

The planters of the Dutch colony relied heavily on African slaves to cultivate, harvest and process the commodity crops of coffee, cocoa, sugar cane and cotton plantations along the rivers. Planters' treatment of the slaves was notoriously bad.[229] Historian C. R. Boxer wrote that "man's inhumanity to man just about reached its limits in Surinam."[230]

Many slaves escaped the plantations. With the help of the native South Americans living in the adjoining rain forests, these runaway slaves established a new and unique culture in the interior that was highly successful in its own right. They were known collectively in English as Maroons, in French as Nèg'Marrons (literally meaning "brown negroes", that is "pale-skinned negroes"), and in Dutch as Marrons. The Maroons gradually developed several independent tribes through a process of ethnogenesis, as they were made up of slaves from different African ethnicities. These tribes include the Saramaka, Paramaka, Ndyuka or Aukan, Kwinti, Aluku or Boni, and Matawai.

The Maroons often raided plantations to recruit new members from the slaves and capture women, as well as to acquire weapons, food and supplies. They sometimes killed planters and their families in the raids.[231] The colonists also mounted armed campaigns against the Maroons, who generally escaped through the rain forest, which they knew much better than did the coloniss. To end hostilities, in the 18th century the European colonial authorities signed several peace treaties with different tribes. They granted the Maroons sovereign status and trade rights in their inland territories, giving them autonomy.

In 1861–63, President Abraham Lincoln of the United States and his administration looked abroad for places to relocate freed slaves who wanted to leave the United States. It opened negotiations with the Dutch government regarding African-American emigration to and colonization of the Dutch colony of Suriname in South America. Nothing came of it and after 1864, the proposal was dropped.[232]

The Netherlands abolished slavery in Suriname, in 1863, under a gradual process that required slaves to work on plantations for 10 transition years for minimal pay, which was considered as partial compensation for their masters. After 1873, most freedmen largely abandoned the plantations where they had worked for several generations in favor of the capital city, Paramaribo.

United States

A coffle of slaves being driven on foot from Staunton, Virginia to Tennessee in 1850.

Slavery in the United States was the legal institution of human chattel enslavement, primarily of Africans and African Americans, that existed in the United States of America in the 18th and 19th centuries, after it gained independence from the British and before the end of the American Civil War. Slavery had been practiced in British America from early colonial days and was legal in all Thirteen Colonies, at the time of the Declaration of Independence in 1776. By the time of the American Revolution, the status of slave had been institutionalized as a racial caste associated with African ancestry.[233] The United States became polarized over the issue of slavery, represented by the slave and free states divided by the Mason–Dixon line, which separated free Pennsylvania from slave Maryland and Delaware.

Congress, during the Jefferson administration, prohibited the importation of slaves, effective 1808, although smuggling (illegal importing) was not unusual.[234] Domestic slave trading, however, continued at a rapid pace, driven by labour demands from the development of cotton plantations in the Deep South. Those states attempted to extend slavery into the new western territories to keep their share of political power in the nation. Such laws proposed to Congress to continue the spread of slavery into newly ratified states include the Kansas-Nebraska Act.

The treatment of slaves in the United States varied widely depending on conditions, times, and places. The power relationships of slavery corrupted many whites who had authority over slaves, with children showing their own cruelty. Masters and overseers resorted to physical punishments to impose their wills. Slaves were punished by whipping, shackling, hanging, beating, burning, mutilation, branding and imprisonment. Punishment was most often meted out in response to disobedience or perceived infractions, but sometimes abuse was carried out to re-assert the dominance of the master or overseer of the slave.[235] Treatment was usually harsher on large plantations, which were often managed by overseers and owned by absentee slaveholders.

Whipping keloid scars of escaped slave, Gordon, Baton Rouge, Louisiana (1863). This famous photo was distributed by abolitionists.[236]

William Wells Brown, who escaped to freedom, reported that on one plantation, slave men were required to pick 80 pounds of cotton per day, while women were required to pick 70 pounds per day; if any slave failed in their quota, they were subject to whip lashes for each pound they were short. The whipping post stood next to the cotton scales.[237] A New York man who attended a slave auction in the mid-19th century reported that at least three-quarters of the male slaves he saw at sale had scars on their backs from whipping.[238] By contrast, small slave-owning families had closer relationships between the owners and slaves; this sometimes resulted in a more humane environment but was not a given.[235]

More than one million slaves were sold from the Upper South, which had a surplus of labour, and taken to the Deep South in a forced migration, splitting up many families. New communities of African-American culture were developed in the Deep South, and the total slave population in the South eventually reached 4 million before liberation.[239][240] In the 19th century, proponents of slavery often defended the institution as a "necessary evil". White people of that time feared that emancipation of black slaves would have more harmful social and economic consequences than the continuation of slavery. The French writer and traveler Alexis de Tocqueville, in Democracy in America (1835), expressed opposition to slavery while observing its effects on American society. He felt that a multiracial society without slavery was untenable, as he believed that prejudice against black people increased as they were granted more rights. Others, like James Henry Hammond argued that slavery was a "positive good" stating: "Such a class you must have, or you would not have that other class which leads progress, civilization, and refinement."

The Southern state governments wanted to keep a balance between the number of slave and free states to maintain a political balance of power in Congress. The new territories acquired from Britain, France, and Mexico were the subject of major political compromises. By 1850, the newly rich cotton-growing South was threatening to secede from the Union, and tensions continued to rise. Many white Southern Christians, including church ministers, attempted to justify their support for slavery as modified by Christian paternalism.[241] The largest denominations, the Baptist, Methodist, and Presbyterian churches, split over the slavery issue into regional organizations of the North and South.

Slaves on a Virginia plantation (The Old Plantation, c. 1790).

When Abraham Lincoln won the 1860 election on a platform of halting the expansion of slavery, according to the 1860 U.S. census, roughly 400,000 individuals, representing 8% of all U.S. families, owned nearly 4,000,000 slaves.[242] One-third of Southern families owned slaves.[243] The South was heavily invested in slavery. As such, upon Lincoln's election, seven states broke away to form the Confederate States of America. The first six states to secede held the greatest number of slaves in the South. Shortly after, over the issue of slavery, the United States erupted into an all out Civil War, with slavery legally ceasing as an institution following the war in December 1865.

In 2018, the Orlando Sentinel reported some private Christian schools in Florida as teaching students a creationist curriculum which includes assertions such as, “most black and white southerners had long lived together in harmony” and that “power-hungry individuals stirred up the people” leading to the Civil Rights Movement.[244]

Ottoman Empire and Black Sea

Late modern period

Main article: Slavery in the 21st century § Prison labor

Nazi Germany

Main article: Forced labour under German rule during World War II

Forced slave labourers in a Buchenwald concentration camp during World War II

During the Second World War, Nazi Germany effectively enslaved about 12 million people, both those considered undesirable and citizens of conquered countries, with the avowed intention of treating these Untermenschen (sub-humans) as a permanent slave-class of inferior beings who could be worked until they died, and who possessed neither the rights nor the legal status of members of the Aryan race.[322]

Besides Jews, the harshest deportation and forced labour policies were applied to the populations of Belarus, Ukraine, and Russia. By the end of the war, half of Belarus' population had been killed or deported.[323][324]

Abolitionism

Main article: Abolitionism

See also: Abolition of slavery timeline

A painting of the 1840 World Anti-Slavery Convention at Exeter Hall in London.[369]

Slavery has existed, in one form or another, throughout recorded human history – as have, in various periods, movements to free large or distinct groups of slaves.

Americas

The Spanish colonization of the Americas sparked a discussion about the right to enslave Native Americans. A prominent critic of slavery in the Spanish New World colonies was the Spanish missionary and bishop, Bartolomé de las Casas, who was "the first to expose the oppression of indigenous peoples by Europeans in the Americas and to call for the abolition of slavery there."[373]

One of the first protests against slavery came from German and Dutch Quakers in Pennsylvania in 1688.[374] In 1777, Vermont, at the time an independent nation, became the first portion of what would become the United States to abolish slavery.[374]

In the United States, all of the northern states had abolished slavery by 1804, with New Jersey being the last to act.[375] Abolitionist pressure produced a series of small steps towards emancipation. After the Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves went into effect on January 1, 1808, the importation of slaves into the United States was prohibited,[376] but not the internal slave trade, nor involvement in the international slave trade externally. Legal slavery persisted outside the northern states; most of those slaves already in the U.S. were legally emancipated only in 1863. Many American abolitionists took an active role in opposing slavery by supporting the Underground Railroad. Violent clashes between anti-slavery and pro-slavery Americans included Bleeding Kansas, a series of political and armed disputes in 1854–1861 as to whether Kansas would join the United States as a slave or free state. By 1860, the total number of slaves reached almost four million, and the American Civil War, beginning in 1861, led to the end of slavery in the United States.[377] In 1863, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which freed slaves held in the Confederate States; the 13th Amendment to the U. S. Constitution prohibited most forms of slavery throughout the country.

Many of the freed slaves became sharecroppers and indentured servants. In this manner, some became tied to the very parcel of land into which they had been born a slave having little freedom or economic opportunity because of Jim Crow laws which perpetuated discrimination, limited education, promoted persecution without due process and resulted in continued poverty. Fear of reprisals such as unjust incarcerations and lynchings deterred upward mobility further.

Olaudah Equiano, His autobiography, published in 1789, helped in the creation of the Slave Trade Act 1807 which ended the African slave trade for Britain and its colonies.

Joseph Jenkins Roberts, born in Virginia, was the first president of Liberia, which was founded in 1822 for freed American slaves.

Europe

France abolished slavery in 1794 during the Revolution,[374] but it was restored in 1802 under Napoleon.[378] It has been asserted that, before the Revolution, slavery was illegal in metropolitan France (as opposed to its colonies),[379] but this has been refuted.[380]

One of the most significant milestones in the campaign to abolish slavery throughout the world occurred in England in 1772, with British Judge Lord Mansfield, whose opinion in Somersett's Case was widely taken to have held that slavery was illegal in England. This judgement also laid down the principle that slavery contracted in other jurisdictions could not be enforced in England.[381]

Sons of Africa was a late 18th-century British group that campaigned to end slavery. Its members were Africans in London, freed slaves who included Ottobah Cugoano, Olaudah Equiano and other leading members of London's black community. It was closely connected to the Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade, a non-denominational group founded in 1787, whose members included Thomas Clarkson. British Member of Parliament William Wilberforce led the anti-slavery movement in the United Kingdom, although the groundwork was an anti-slavery essay by Clarkson. Wilberforce was urged by his close friend, Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger, to make the issue his own and was also given support by reformed Evangelical John Newton. The Slave Trade Act was passed by the British Parliament on March 25, 1807, making the slave trade illegal throughout the British Empire,[382] Wilberforce also campaigned for abolition of slavery in the British Empire, which he lived to see in the Slavery Abolition Act 1833.

After the 1807 act abolishing the slave trade was passed, these campaigners switched to encouraging other countries to follow suit, notably France and the British colonies. Between 1808 and 1860, the British West Africa Squadron seized approximately 1,600 slave ships and freed 150,000 Africans who were aboard.[383] Action was also taken against African leaders who refused to agree to British treaties to outlaw the trade, for example against "the usurping King of Lagos", deposed in 1851. Anti-slavery treaties were signed with over 50 African rulers.[384]

Worldwide

In 1839, the world's oldest international human rights organization, Anti-Slavery International, was formed in Britain by Joseph Sturge, which campaigned to outlaw slavery in other countries.[385] There were celebrations in 2007 to commemorate the 200th anniversary of the abolition of the slave trade in the United Kingdom through the work of the British Anti-Slavery Society.

In the 1860s, David Livingstone's reports of atrocities within the Arab slave trade in Africa stirred up the interest of the British public, reviving the flagging abolitionist movement. The Royal Navy throughout the 1870s attempted to suppress "this abominable Eastern trade", at Zanzibar in particular. In 1905, the French abolished indigenous slavery in most of French West Africa.[386]

On December 10, 1948, the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which declared freedom from slavery is an internationally recognized human right. Article 4 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states:

No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms.[387]

In 2014, for the first time in history, major leaders of many religions, Buddhist, Hindu, Christian, Jewish, and Muslim met to sign a shared commitment against modern-day slavery; the declaration they signed calls for the elimination of slavery and human trafficking by 2020.[388] The signatories were: Pope Francis, Mātā Amṛtānandamayī, Bhikkhuni Thich Nu Chân Không (representing Zen Master Thích Nhất Hạnh), Datuk K Sri Dhammaratana, Chief High Priest of Malaysia, Rabbi Abraham Skorka, Rabbi David Rosen, Abbas Abdalla Abbas Soliman, Undersecretary of State of Al Azhar Alsharif (representing Mohamed Ahmed El-Tayeb, Grand Imam of Al-Azhar), Grand Ayatollah Mohammad Taqi al-Modarresi, Sheikh Naziyah Razzaq Jaafar, Special advisor of Grand Ayatollah (representing Grand Ayatollah Sheikh Basheer Hussain al Najafi), Sheikh Omar Abboud, Justin Welby, Archbishop of Canterbury, and Metropolitan Emmanuel of France (representing Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew.)[388]

Groups such as the American Anti-Slavery Group, Anti-Slavery International, Free the Slaves, the Anti-Slavery Society, and the Norwegian Anti-Slavery Society continue to campaign to eliminate slavery.

Apologies

On May 21, 2001, the National Assembly of France passed the Taubira law, recognizing slavery as a crime against humanity. Apologies on behalf of African nations, for their role in trading their countrymen into slavery, remain an open issue since slavery was practiced in Africa even before the first Europeans arrived and the Atlantic slave trade was performed with a high degree of involvement of several African societies. The black slave market was supplied by well-established slave trade networks controlled by local African societies and individuals.[389]

There is adequate evidence citing case after case of African control of segments of the trade. Several African nations such as the Calabar and other southern parts of Nigeria had economies depended solely on the trade. African peoples such as the Imbangala of Angola and the Nyamwezi of Tanzania would serve as middlemen or roving bands warring with other African nations to capture Africans for Europeans.[390]

Several historians have made important contributions to the global understanding of the African side of the Atlantic slave trade. By arguing that African merchants determined the assemblage of trade goods accepted in exchange for slaves, many historians argue for African agency and ultimately a shared responsibility for the slave trade.[391]

In 1999, President Mathieu Kérékou of Benin issued a national apology for the central role Africans played in the Atlantic slave trade.[179] Luc Gnacadja, minister of environment and housing for Benin, later said: "The slave trade is a shame, and we do repent for it."[392] Researchers estimate that 3 million slaves were exported out of the Slave Coast bordering the Bight of Benin.[392] President Jerry Rawlings of Ghana also apologized for his country's involvement in the slave trade.[179]

The issue of an apology is linked to reparations for slavery and is still being pursued by entities across the world. For example, the Jamaican Reparations Movement approved its declaration and action plan. In 2007, British Prime Minister Tony Blair made a formal apology for Great Britain's involvement in slavery.[393]

On February 25, 2007, the Commonwealth of Virginia resolved to 'profoundly regret' and apologize for its role in the institution of slavery. Unique and the first of its kind in the U.S., the apology was unanimously passed in both Houses as Virginia approached the 400th anniversary of the founding of Jamestown.[394]

On August 24, 2007, Mayor Ken Livingstone of London apologized publicly for Britain's role in colonial slave trade. "You can look across there to see the institutions that still have the benefit of the wealth they created from slavery," he said, pointing towards the financial district. He claimed that London was still tainted by the horrors of slavery. Specifically, London outfitted, financed, and insured many of the ships, which helped fund the building of London's docks.[395] Officials in Liverpool, which was a large slave trading port, apologized in 1999.[396]

On July 30, 2008, the United States House of Representatives passed a resolution apologizing for American slavery and subsequent discriminatory laws.[397] In June 2009, the U.S. Senate passed a resolution apologizing to African-Americans for the "fundamental injustice, cruelty, brutality, and inhumanity of slavery". The news was welcomed by President Barack Obama, the nation's first president of African descent.[398] Some of President Obama's ancestors may have been slave owners.[399]

In 2010, Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi apologized for Arab involvement in the slave trade, saying: "I regret the behavior of the Arabs… They brought African children to North Africa, they made them slaves, they sold them like animals, and they took them as slaves and traded them in a shameful way."[citation needed]

Reparations

Main article: Reparations for slavery

There have been movements to achieve reparations for those formerly held as slaves or for their descendants. Claims for reparations for being held in slavery are handled as a civil law matter in almost every country. This is often decried as a serious problem, since former slaves' relatives lack of money means they often have limited access to a potentially expensive and futile legal process. Mandatory systems of fines and reparations paid to an as yet undetermined group of claimants from fines, paid by unspecified parties, and collected by authorities have been proposed by advocates to alleviate this "civil court problem." Since in almost all cases there are no living ex-slaves or living ex-slave owners these movements have gained little traction. In nearly all cases the judicial system has ruled that the statute of limitations on these possible claims has long since expired.

Media

Film has been the most influential medium in the presentation of the history of slavery to the general public around the world.[400] The American film industry has had a complex relationship with slavery and until recent decades often avoided the topic. Films such as The Birth of a Nation (1915)[401] and Gone with the Wind (1939) became controversial because they gave a favourable depiction. In 1940 The Santa Fe Trail gave a liberal but ambiguous interpretation of John Brown's attacks on slavery.[402] Song of the South gave a favorable outlook on slavery in the United States in 1946.

The Civil Rights Movement in the 1950s made defiant slaves into heroes.[403] The question of slavery in American memory necessarily involves its depictions in feature films.[404]

Most Hollywood films used American settings, although Spartacus (1960), dealt with an actual revolt in the Roman Empire known as the Third Servile War. The revolt failed, and all the rebels were executed, but their spirit lived on according to the film.[405] Spartacus stays surprisingly close to the historical record.[406]

The Last Supper (La última cena in Spanish) was a 1976 film directed by Cuban Tomás Gutiérrez Alea about the teaching of Christianity to slaves in Cuba, and emphasizes the role of ritual and revolt. Burn! takes place on the imaginary Portuguese island of Queimada (where the locals speak Spanish) and it merges historical events that took place in Brazil, Cuba, Santo Domingo, Jamaica, and elsewhere.

Historians agree that films have largely shaped historical memories, but they debate issues of accuracy, plausibility, moralism, sensationalism, how facts are stretched in search of broader truths, and suitability for the classroom.[407][405] Berlin argues that critics complain if the treatment emphasizes historical brutality, or if it glosses over the harshness to highlight the emotional impact of slavery.[408]

See also

·       Alexander Hamilton#On slavery

·       Bodmin manumissions, the names and details of slaves freed in Medieval Bodmin

·       Indemnity#Freeing of slaves and indentured servants

·       International Day for the Abolition of Slavery

·       International Slavery Museum

·       Involuntary servitude

·       List of enslaved people

·       List of slave owners

·       Mukataba

·       Pope Gregory XVI#Condemnation of the slave trade / In supremo apostolatus

·       Pope Pius II#Slavery

·       Slave rebellion

·       Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery

·       Wilberforce Institute for the Study of Slavery and Emancipation

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149.                  Edward R. Tannenbaum, Guilford Dudley (1973). A History of World Civilizations. Wiley. p. 615. 

150.                  Campbell 2004, p. ix.

151.                  Shillington, Kevin (July 4, 2013). Encyclopedia of African History 3-Volume Set. Routledge. p. 1401. 

152.                  "Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)". Journal of World History.

153.                  ""Freedom is a good thing but it means a dearth of slaves": Twentieth Century Solutions to the Abolition of Slavery" (PDF).

154.                  Bagley, H. R. C. (August 1, 1997). The Last Great Muslim Empires. BRILL. 

155.                  Rodriguez 2007a, p. 585.

156.                  Asquith, Christina. "Revisiting the Zanj and Re-Visioning Revolt: Complexities of the Zanj Conflict – 868–883 AD – slave revolt in Iraq".

157.                  "Islam, From Arab To Islamic Empire: The Early Abbasid Era". History-world.org.

158.                  Kissling, H. J; Spuler, Bertold; Barbour, N; Trimingham, J.S.; Braun, H; Hartel, H (August 1, 1997). The Last Great Muslim Empires. 

159.                  Syed, Muzaffar Husain (2011). A Concise History of Islam. New Delhi: VIJ Books (India) Pty Ltd. p. 453.  According to Robert Davis, from the 16th to 19th century, pirates captured 1 million to 1.25 million Europeans as slaves.

160.                  Davis, R. (September 16, 2003). Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, The Barbary Coast, and Italy, 1500-1800. Palgrave Macmillan UK. 

161.                  "When Europeans were slaves: Research suggests white slavery was much more common than previously believed". Research News.

162.                 Carroll, Rory (March 11, 2004). "New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe". The Guardian. 

163.                  Wright, John (2007). "Trans-Saharan Slave Trade". Routledge.

164.                  Davis, Robert (February 17, 2011). "British Slaves on the Barbary Coast". BBC.

165.                  Baepler, B. (January 1999). "White Slaves, African Masters: An Anthology of American Barbary Captivity Narratives". The SHAFR Guide Online. University of Chicago Press: 5. 

166.                  "History – British History in depth: British Slaves on the Barbary Coast". BBC.

167.                  "Swahili Coast". National Geographic. October 17, 2002.

168.                  "Remembering East African slave raids". BBC News. March 30, 2007.

169.                  "Focus on the slave trade". BBC News. September 3, 2001.

170.                  Campbell 2007, p. 173.

171.                  Veenhoven, Willem A. (1977). Case Studies on Human Rights And Fundamental Freedoms: A World Survey. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 440. 

172.                 Snell, Daniel C. (2011). "Slavery in the Ancient Near East". In Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge (ed.). The Cambridge World History of Slavery. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 4–21.

173.                  Lovejoy, Paul E. (1989). "The Impact of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Africa: A Review of the Literature". Journal of African History: 30.

174.                  Foner, Eric (2012). Give Me Liberty: An American History. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. p. 18.

175.                  M'bokolo, Elikia (April 1, 1998). "The impact of the slave trade on Africa". Le Monde diplomatique.

176.                  Gates Jr., Henry Louis (April 22, 2010). "Opinion | Ending the Slavery Blame-Game". The New York Times. 

177.                  Bortolot, Alexander Ives. "The Transatlantic Slave Trade]". www.metmuseum.org.

178.                  "Nigeria – The Slave Trade". countrystudies.us. U.S. Library of Congress.

179.                  Rubinstein, W.D. (2004). Genocide: a history. Pearson Education. pp. 76–78. 

180.                  Mancke, Elizabeth; Shammas, Carole (May 31, 2005). The Creation of the British Atlantic World. JHU Press. pp. 30–31. 

181.                  "The World Factbook". cia.gov.

182.                  "Health In Slavery".

183.                  Galenson, David W. (March 1984). "The Rise and Fall of Indentured Servitude in the Americas: An Economic Analysis". The Journal of Economic History. XLIV (1): 1–26. 

184.                  Bavis, Barbara. "Research Guides: American Women: Resources from the Law Library: Introduction". guides.loc.gov. Law Library of Congress.

185.                  "Slave Laws". Virtual Jamestown.

186.                  Donoghue, John (2010). "Out of the Land of Bondage": The English Revolution and the Atlantic Origins of Abolition". The American Historical Review. 115 (4): 943–974. 

187.                  Higginbotham Jr., A. Leon (1978). In the Matter of Color: Race and the American Legal Process: The Colonial Period. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 7. 

188.                  Billings, Warren M. (2009). The Old Dominion in the Seventeenth Century: A Documentary History of Virginia, 1606–1700: Easyread Super Large 18pt Edition. ReadHowYouWant.com. pp. 286–87. 

189.                  Federal Writers' Project (1954). Virginia: A Guide to the Old Dominion. US History Publishers. p. 76. 

190.                  Danver, Steven (2010). Popular Controversies in World History. ABC-CLIO. p. 322. 

191.                  Kozlowski, Darrell (2010). Colonialism: Key Concepts in American History. Infobase Publishing. p. 78. 

192.                  Conway, John (2008). A Look at the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Amendments: Slavery Abolished, Equal Protection Established. Enslow Publishers. p. 5. 

193.                  Toppin, Edgar (2010). The Black American in United States History. Allyn & Bacon. p. 46. 

194.                  Foner, Philip S. (1980). History of Black Americans: From Africa to the emergence of the cotton kingdom. Oxford University Press.

195.                  Burnham, Philip. "Selling Poor Steven". American Heritage Magazine.

196.                  Ali, Arif (1997). Barbados: Just Beyond Your Imagination. Hansib Publishing (Caribbean) Ltd. pp. 46, 48. 

197.                  "Domínio Público - Pesquisa Básica". www.dominiopublico.gov.br.

198.                  "Vergonha Ainda Maior: Novas informações disponíveis em um enorme banco de dados mostram que a escravidão no Brasil foi muito pior do que se sabia antes (". Veja (in Portuguese).

199.                  "African Heritage and Memories of Slavery in Brazil and the South Atlantic World By Ana Lucia Araujo". www.cambriapress.com.

200.                 Childs, Matt D. (2006). 1812 Aponte Rebellion in Cuba and the Struggle against Atlantic Slavery. University of North Carolina Press. 

201.                  Montejo 2016, pp. 80–82

202.                  Knight pp. 144–145

203.                  Montejo 2016, p. 39

204.                  Montejo 2016, p. 40

205.                  Montejo 2016, pp. 39–40

206.                  Reséndez, Andrés (2016). The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 17. 

207.                  Farmer, Paul (April 15, 2004). "Who removed Aristide?". London Review of Books. pp. 28–31.

208.                  Kiple, Kenneth F. (2002). The Caribbean Slave: A Biological History. Cambridge University Press. p. 145. 

209.                  Campbell 2008, pp. 27–53.

210.                  Moitt, Bernard (2001). Women and Slavery in the French Antilles, 1635–1848. Indiana University Press. p. 63.

211.                  Coupeau, Steeve (2008). The History of Haiti. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 18. 

212.                  "JAMAICAN HISTORY I". Discover Jamaica.

213.                  Guitar, Lynne. "Criollos: The Birth of a Dynamic New Indo-Afro-European People and Culture on Hispaniola". KACIKE: Journal of Caribbean Amerindian History and Anthropology.

214.                  Léger, Jacques Nicolas (1907). Haiti, Her History and Her Detractors. Neale Publishing Company. p. 23.

215.                  Accilien, Cécile; Adams, Jessica; Méléance, Elmide; Ulrick, Jean-Pierre (2006). Revolutionary Freedoms: A History of Survival, Strength and Imagination in Haiti. Educa Vision Inc. p. 12. 

216.                  Agurilar-Moreno, Manuel (2006). Handbook to Life in the Aztec World. California State University, Los Angeles.

217.                  Yaz, Designs (June 29, 2001). "'Puerto Rico' Grilla's Homepage". Angelfire.com.

218.                  "Bartoleme de las Casas". Oregonstate.edu.

219.                  Martinez, Robert A. "African Aspects of the Puerto Rican Personality". ipoaa.com.

220.                  "Teoría, Crítica e Historia: La abolición de la esclavitud y el mundo hispano" (in Spanish). Ensayistas.org. 

221.                  Baralt, Guillermo A. (2007). Slave Revolts in Puerto Rico: Conspiracies and Uprisings, 1795-1873. Markus Wiener Publishers.

222.                  "El 'Bando Negro' o "Código Negro"" [The "Black Edict" or "Black Code"]. Government Gazette of Puerto Rico (in Spanish). fortunecity.com. May 31, 1848.

223.                  Bas García, José R. (March 23, 2009). "La abolición de la esclavitud de 1873 en Puerto Rico" [The abolition of slavery in 1873 in Puerto Rico]. Center for Advanced Studies of Puerto Rico and the Caribbean (in Spanish). independencia.net.

224.                  Rodriguez 2007a, p. 398.

225.                  "Esclavitud Puerto Rico". Proyectosalonhogar.com. Retrieved July 23, 2015.

226.                  Streissguth, Tom (2009). Suriname in Pictures. Twenty-First Century Books. p. 23. 

227.                  Boxer, C. R. (1990) [1965]. The Dutch Seaborne Empire: 1600-1800. London: Penguin. pp. 271–272. 

228.                  Mentelle, Simon M. (1777). "Extract of the Dutch Map Representing the Colony of Surinam". www.wdl.org. Digital World Library via Library of Congress.

229.                  Douma, Michael J. (June 2015). "The Lincoln Administration's Negotiations to Colonize African Americans in Dutch Suriname". Civil War History. 61 (2): 111–37. 

230.                  Wood, Peter (2003). "The Birth of Race-Based Slavery". Slate.

231.                  Smith, Julia Floyd (1973). Slavery and Plantation Growth in Antebellum Florida, 1821–1860. Gainesville: University of Florida Press. pp. 44–46. 

232.                  Moore, Wilbert Ellis (1980). American Negro Slavery and Abolition: A Sociological Study. Ayer Publishing.

233.                  Collins, Kathleen (September 30, 2009). "A Slave Named Gordon". The New York Times. p. 45. 

234.                  Clinton, Catherine (1999). Scholastic Encyclopedia of the Civil War. Scholastic Reference. p. 8. 

235.                  McInnis, Maurie D. (2011). Slaves Waiting for Sale: Abolitionist Art and the American Slave Trade. University of Chicago Press. p. 129. 

236.                  Behrendt, Stephen (1999). "Transatlantic Slave Trade". Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience. New York: Basic Civitas Books.  Based on "records for 27,233 voyages that set out to obtain slaves for the Americas".

237.                  "Social Aspects of the Civil War". National Park Service.

238.                  "Why Did So Many Christians Support Slavery?". christianitytoday.com.

239.                  "1860 Census Results".

240.                  "Small Truth Papering Over a Big Lie". The Atlantic. August 9, 2010.

241.                  Postal, Leslie (June 1, 2018). "Schools Without Rules: Private schools' curriculum downplays slavery, says humans and dinosaurs lived together". Orlando Sentinel.

242.                  Williams, R. Owen (November 2006). Encyclopedia of Antislavery and Abolition [Two Volumes]. Greenwood Press. 

243.                  Zhao, Gang (1986). Man and Land in Chinese History: An Economic Analysis. Stanford University Press. 

244.                  Huang, Philip C. (2001). Code, Custom, and Legal Practice in China: The Qing and the Republic Compared. Stanford University Press. 

245.                  Hirschman, Elizabeth Caldwell; Yates, Donald N. (2014). The Early Jews and Muslims of England and Wales: A Genetic and Genealogical History. McFarland. p. 51. 

246.                  "Kao-li maid-servant". Memoirs of the Research Department of the Tōyō Bunko. Tokyo: Tōyō Bunko (2): 63. 1928. 

247.                  Lee, Kenneth B. (1997). Korea and East Asia: the story of a Phoenix. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 49. 

248.                  Davis 1988, p. 51.

249.                  Salisbury, Joyce E. (2004). The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Daily Life: The medieval world. Greenwood Press. p. 316. 

250.                  Schafer, Edward H. (1963). The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A Study of Tʻang Exotics. University of California Press. pp. 45–46. 

251.                  Granet, Marcel (2013) [1930], "The History of Civilization", Chinese Civilization, London: Routledge, pp. 500–503, 

252.                  Lipman, Jonathan Neaman (2004). Familiar strangers: a history of Muslims in Northwest China. Seattle: University of Washington Press. p. 69. 

253.                  Brook, Timothy; Wakabayashi, Bob Tadashi (2000). Opium regimes: China, Britain, and Japan, 1839–1952. University of California Press. p. 148. 

254.                  Millward 1998, p. 145.

255.                  Millward 1998, p. 206.

256.                  footnote 2: (...) While it is likely that the institution of slavery existed in India during the Vedic period, the association of the Vedic 'Dasa' with 'slaves' is problematic and likely to have been a later development.

257.                  Levi, Scott C. (November 2002). "Hindus Beyond the Hindu Kush: Indians in the Central Asian Slave Trade". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. 12 (3): 277–288.  Sources such as the Arthasastra, the Manusmriti and the Mahabharata demonstrate that institutionalized slavery was well established in India by beginning of the common era

258.                  "Windows – Slice of history". The Tribune.

259.                  Subrahmanyam, Sanjay (1997). "Slaves and Tyrants: Dutch Tribulations in Seventeenth-Century Mrauk-U". Journal of Early Modern History. 1 (3): 201–253. 

260.                  Prakash, Om (June 28, 1998). European Commercial Enterprise in Pre-Colonial India. The New Cambridge History of India. Vol. II. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 5. 

261.                  Prakash, Om (January 1, 1985). The Dutch East India Company and the Economy of Bengal, 1630-1720. Princeton University Press. 

262.                  Richards, John F. (2012). The Mughal Empire. The New Cambridge History of India, Part I, Volume 5. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 

263.                  Raychaudhuri and Habib, eds, The Cambridge Economic History of India I; V.B. Lieberman, Burmese Administrative Cycles: Anarchy and Conquest, c. 1580–1760 (Princeton, N.J., 1984); G.D. Winius, "The 'Shadow Empire' of Goa in the Bay of Bengal," Itinerario 7, no. 2 (1983); D.G.E. Hall, "Studies in Dutch relations with Arakan," Journal of the Burma Research Society 26, no. 1 (1936):; D.G.E. Hall, "The Daghregister of Batavia and Dutch Trade with Burma in the Seventeenth Century," Journal of the Burma Research Society 29, no. 2 (1939)

264.                  Arasaratnam, Sinnappah (1995). "Slave Trade in the Indian Ocean in the Seventeenth Century". In Mathew, Kuzhippalli S. (ed.). Mariners, Merchants and Oceans: Studies on Maritime History. New Delhi: Manohar. 

265.                  VOC 1479, OBP 1691, fls. 611r–627v, Specificatie van Allerhande Koopmansz. tot Tuticurin, Manaapar en Alvatt.rij Ingekocht, 1670/71–1689/90; W. Ph. Coolhaas and J.van Goor, eds, Generale Missiven van Gouverneurs-Generaal en Raden van Indiaan Heren Zeventien der Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie (The Hague, 1960–present), passim; T. Raychaudhuri, Jan Company in Coromandel, 1605–1690: A Study on the Interrelations of European Commerce and Traditional Economies (The Hague, 1962)

266.                  For exports of Malabar slaves to Ceylon, Batavia, see Generale Missiven VI; H.K. s'Jacob ed., De Nederlanders in Kerala, 1663–1701: De Memories en Instructies Betreffende het Commandement Malabar van de Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie, Rijks Geschiedkundige Publication, Kleine serie 43 (The Hague, 1976); R. Barendse, "Slaving on the Malagasy Coast, 1640–1700," in S. Evers and M. Spindler, eds, Cultures of Madagascar: Ebb and Flow of Influences (Leiden, 1995). See also M.O. Koshy, The Dutch Power in Kerala (New Delhi, 1989); K.K. Kusuman, Slavery in Travancore (Trivandrum, 1973); M.A.P. Meilink-Roelofsz, De Vestiging der Nederlanders ter Kuste Malabar (The Hague, 1943); H. Terpstra, De Opkomst der Westerkwartieren van de Oostindische Compagnie (The Hague, 1918).

267.                  Vink, Markus P. M. (June 1998). Encounters on the Opposite Coast: Cross-Cultural Contacts between the Dutch East India Company and the Nayaka State of Madurai in the Seventeenth Century (PhD). Vol. 1. University of Minnesota. 

268.                  Arasaratnam, Sinnappah (1996). Ceylon and the Dutch: 1600-1800: External Influences and Internal Change in Early Modern Sri Lanka. Brookfield, VT: Variorum. 

269.                  Love, Henry Davison (1913). Vestiges of Old Madras, 1640-1800. London: Published for the Govt. of India. 

270.                  Of 2,467 slaves traded on 12 slave voyages from Batavia, India, and Madagascar between 1677 and 1701 to the Cape, 1,617 were landed with a loss of 850 slaves, or 34.45%. On 19 voyages between 1677 and 1732, the mortality rate was somewhat lower (22.7%). See Shell, "Slavery at the Cape of Good Hope, 1680–1731," p. 332. Filliot estimated the average mortality rate among slaves shipped from India and West Africa to the Mascarene Islands at 20–25% and 25–30%, respectively. Average mortality rates among slaves arriving from closer catchment areas were lower: 12% from Madagascar and 21% from Southeast Africa. See Filliot, La Traite des Esclaves, p. 228; A. Toussaint, La Route des Îles: Contribution à l'Histoire Maritime des Mascareignes (Paris, 1967); Allen, "The Madagascar Slave Trade and Labor Migration."

271.                 Bowie, Katherine A. (1996). "Slavery in Nineteenth-Century Northern Thailand: Archival Anecdotes and Village Voices". Kyoto Review of Southeast Asia. Yale University Southeast Asia Studies Monograph Series. 44: 16–33.

272.                  Clarence-Smith, W.G. (2006). Islam and the Abolition of Slavery. Oxford University Press. p. 13. 

273.                  Hoffman, Michael (May 26, 2013). "The rarely, if ever, told story of Japanese sold as slaves by Portuguese traders". Japan Times.

274.                  "Europeans had Japanese slaves, in case you didn't know…". Japan Probe. May 10, 2007.

275.                  Ralf Hertel, Michael Keevak (2017). Early Encounters between East Asia and Europe: Telling Failures. Routledge. 

276.                  Michael Weiner, ed. (2004). Race, Ethnicity and Migration in Modern Japan: Imagined and imaginary minorites (illustrated ed.). Taylor & Francis. p. 408. 

277.                  Appiah, Kwame Anthony; Gates Jr., Henry Louis, eds. (2005). Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience. Vol. 3. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 479. 

278.                  Appiah, Kwame Anthony; Gates Jr., Henry Louis, eds. (2010). Encyclopedia of Africa. Vol. 1. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 187. 

279.                  Robert Gellately; Ben Kiernan, eds. (2003). The Specter of Genocide: Mass Murder in Historical Perspective (reprint ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 277 Hideyoshi korean slaves guns silk.

280.                  McCormack, Gavan (2001). Reflections on Modern Japanese History in the Context of the Concept of "genocide". Edwin O. Reischauer Institute of Japanese Studies. Harvard University, Edwin O. Reischauer Institute of Japanese Studies. p. 18.

281.                  Lidin, Olof G. (2002). Tanegashima – The Arrival of Europe in Japan. Routledge. p. 170. 

282.                  Stanley, Amy (2012). Selling Women: Prostitution, Markets, and the Household in Early Modern Japan. Vol. 21 of Asia: Local Studies / Global Themes. Matthew H. Sommer. University of California Press. 

283.                  Spence, Jonathan D. (1985). The memory palace of Matteo Ricci (illustrated, reprint ed.). Penguin Books. p. 208.  countryside.16 Slaves were everywhere in Lisbon, according to the Florentine merchant Filippo Sassetti, who was also living in the city during 1578. Black slaves were the most numerous, but there were also a scattering of Chinese

284.                  Leite, José Roberto Teixeira (1999). A China no Brasil: influências, marcas, ecos e sobrevivências chinesas na sociedade e na arte brasileiras (in Portuguese). UNICAMP. Universidade Estadual de Campinas. p. 19.  Idéias e costumes da China podem ter-nos chegado também através de escravos chineses, de uns poucos dos quais sabe-se da presença no Brasil de começos do Setecentos.17 Mas não deve ter sido através desses raros infelizes que a influência chinesa nos atingiu, mesmo porque escravos chineses (e também japoneses) já existiam aos montes em Lisboa por volta de 1578, quando Filippo Sassetti visitou a cidade,18 apenas suplantados em número pelos africanos. Parece aliás que aos últimos cabia o trabalho pesado, ficando reservadas aos chins tarefas e funções mais amenas, inclusive a de em certos casos secretariar autoridades civis, religiosas e militares.

285.                  Pinto, Jeanette (1992). Slavery in Portuguese India, 1510–1842. Bombay: Himalaya Pub. House. p. 18.  ing Chinese as slaves, since they are found to be very loyal, intelligent and hard working' ... their culinary bent was also evidently appreciated. The Florentine traveller Fillippo Sassetti, recording his impressions of Lisbon's enormous slave population circa 1580, states that the majority of the Chinese there were employed as cooks.

286.                  Boxer, C. R. (1968) [1948]. Fidalgos in the Far East 1550-1770 (2nd revised ed.). Hong Kong: Oxford University Press. p. 225.  be very loyal, intelligent, and hard-working. Their culinary bent (not for nothing is Chinese cooking regarded as the Asiatic equivalent to French cooking in Europe) was evidently appreciated. The Florentine traveller Filipe Sassetti recording his impressions of Lisbon's enormous slave population circa 1580, states that the majority of the Chinese there were employed as cooks. Dr. John Fryer, who gives us an interesting ...

287.                  Leite, José Roberto Teixeira (1999). A China No Brasil: Influencias, Marcas, Ecos E Sobrevivencias Chinesas Na Sociedade E Na Arte Brasileiras (in Portuguese). UNICAMP. Universidade Estadual de Campinas. p. 19. 

288.                  Finkelman, Paul; Miller, Joseph Calder (1998). Macmillan encyclopedia of world slavery. Vol. 2. Macmillan Reference US. p. 737. 

289.                  de Sande, Duarte (2012). Derek Massarella (ed.). Japanese Travellers in Sixteenth-century Europe: A Dialogue Concerning the Mission of the Japanese Ambassadors to the Roman Curia (1590). Works Issued by the Hakluyt Society. Third Series. Vol. 25 of 3: Works, Hakluyt Society. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. 

290.                  Saunders, A.C. de C.M. (1982). A Social History of Black Slaves and Freedmen in Portugal, 1441–1555. Vol. 25 of 3: Works, Hakluyt Society Hakluyt Society (illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 168

291.                  Nelson, Thomas (Winter 2004). "Slavery in Medieval Japan". Monumenta Nipponica. 59 (4): 463–492. 

292.                  Daigaku, Jōchi (2004). Monumenta Nipponica. Sophia University. p. 465.

293.                  Kitagawa, Joseph Mitsuo (2013). Religion in Japanese History (illustrated, reprint ed.). Columbia University Press. p. 144. 

294.                  Calman, Donald (2013). Nature and Origins of Japanese Imperialism. Routledge. p. 37. 

295.                  Kshetry, Gopal (2008). Foreigners in Japan: A Historical Perspective. Xlibris Corporation. 

296.                  Moran, J.F. (2012). Japanese and the Jesuits. Routledge. 

297.                  Dias, Maria Suzette Fernandes (2007). Legacies of slavery: comparative perspectives. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 71. 

298.                  Campbell 2004, p. 157.

299.                  Kim, Youngmin; Pettid, Michael J. (2011). Women and Confucianism in Choson Korea: New Perspectives. SUNY Press. pp. 140–41. 

300.                  Korean History: Discovery of Its Characteristics and Developments. Hollym. 2004. p. 14. 

301.                  Tierney, Helen (1999). Women's Studies Encyclopedia. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 277. 

302.                  Klein, Martin A. (2014). "Maori". Historical Dictionary of Slavery and Abolition. Historical Dictionaries of Religions, Philosophies, and Movements Series (2 ed.). Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 253.  Slaves called mokai were an important part of pre-colonial Maori society.

303.                  Kizilov, Mikhail (2007). "Slave Trade in the Early Modern Crimea From the Perspective of Christian, Muslim, and Jewish Sources". Journal of Early Modern History. 11 (1): 1–31. 

304.                  "Sexual slavery – the harem". BBC – Religion & Ethics.

305.                  Subtelny, Orest (2000). Ukraine: A History. University of Toronto Press. p. 106. 

306.                  Inalcik, Halil (1979). "Servile Labor in the Ottoman Empire". In Ascher, Abraham; Halasi-Kun, Tibor; Kiràly, Béla K. (eds.). The Mutual Effects of the Islamic and Judeo-Christian Worlds: The East European Pattern. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 25–43.

307.                  Darjusz Kołodziejczyk, as reported by Kizilov, Mikhail (2007). "Slaves, Money Lenders, and Prisoner Guards:The Jews and the Trade in Slaves and Captivesin the Crimean Khanate". The Journal of Jewish Studies. 58 (2): 189–210. 

308.                  Matsuki, Eizo. "The Crimean Tatars and their Russian-Captive Slaves" (PDF).

309.                  "The Freeing of the Slaves". Khiva.info.

310.                  Kaiser, Darrel P. (2006). Origin & Ancestors Families Karle & Kaiser Of the German-Russian Volga Colonies. Darrel P. Kaiser. 

311.                  For sources about forced slave labor in GULAG camps, see Applebaum, Anne. "Introduction". Gulag: A History. New York: Knopf Doubleday Publishing. p. xv. Gulag is the word an acronym for Glavnoe Upravlenie Lagerei or Central Administration of Camps. Over time, it has also indicated not only the administration of concentration camps, but also the very system of Soviet slave labor, in all its forms and varieties Gregory, Paul R.; Lazarev, Valery (October 1, 2003). The Economics of Forced Labor: The Soviet Gulag. Stanford, CA: Hoover Press. p. 112. From the perspective of the Kremlin, Magadan existed as the center of a domestic colony based on slave labor. Barnes, Steven A. (April 4, 2011). Death and Redemption: The Gulag and the Shaping of Soviet Society. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. pp. 7, 36, 262. Dobson, Miriam (October 2012). "Stalin's Gulag: Death, Redemption and Memory". The Slavonic and East European Review. 90 (4): 735–743. 

312.                  Gregory, Paul R.; Lazarev, Valery (2003). The Economics of Forced Labor: The Soviet Gulag. Stanford, CA: Hoover Press. p. vii. Much has been written, and much is still to be written, about the Gulag. We all know of its status as an “archipelago” (in Solzhenitsyn's words) of penal slavery, inflicted on millions and held as a threat over the rest of the population."

313.                  Applebaum, Anne (2003). Gulag: A History. New York: Doubleday.

314.                  For sources about life in the Gulag camps, please see: Conquest, Robert (1978). Kolyma: The Arctic Death Camps. New York: Viking Press.Lester, David; Krysinska, Karolina (2008). "Suicide in the Soviet Gulag Camps" (pdf). Archives of Suicide Research. 12 (2): 170–9Retrieved December 30, 2020.Anderson, Gary M.; Tollison, Robert D. "Life in the Gulag: A Property Rights Persepctive". Cato Journal. 5: 295. This is the fact that the forced labor system of the Gulag is an example of slavery in the absence of well-defined and enforced property rights in slaves.Meltzer, Milton (1993). "Slavery: A World History". Personal Research Collection.

315.                  Alexopoulos, Golfo (2017). Illness and Inhumanity in Stalin's Gulag. New Haven, CT: Yale University/The Hoover Institution. p. 5.

316.                  Applebaum, Anne (2007). "Introduction". Gulag: A History. Anchor.

317.                  "Wilson Bell". Academia.edu.

318.                  Barenberg, Alan; Bell, Wilson T.; Kinnear, Sean; Maddox, Steven; Viola, Lynne (November 14, 2017). "New directions in Gulag studies: a roundtable discussion". Canadian Slavonic Papers. 59 (3–4): 2. 

319.                  "Nazi slave fund passes final hurdle". May 30, 2001.

320.                  Steinert, Johannes-Dieter. Kleine Ostarbeiter: Child Forced Labor in Nazi Germany and German Occupied Eastern Europe. 127th Annual Meeting American Historical Association. ...apart from Jewish forced labourers – workers from Belarus, Ukraine and Russia had to endure the worst working and living conditions. Moreover, German occupation policies in the Soviet Union were far more brutal than in any other country, and German deportation practices the most inhuman.

321.                  "The Holocaust in Belarus". Facing History and Ourselves. Retrieved December 29, 2020. The non-Jewish population was subjected to Nazi terror, too. Hundreds of thousands were deported to Germany as slave laborers, thousands of villages and towns were burned or destroyed, and millions were starved to death as the Germans plundered the entire region. Timothy Snyder estimates that 'half of the population of Soviet Belarus was either killed or forcibly displaced during World War II: nothing of the kind can be said of any other European country.'

322.                  "A Mauritanian Abolitionist's Crusade Against Slavery". The New Yorker. September 8, 2014.

323.                  "Forced labour – Themes". Ilo.org.

324.                  "Inaugural Global Slavery Index Reveals More Than 29 Million People Living In Slavery". Global Slavery Index 2013. October 4, 2013.

325.                  Bales 1999, p. 9, Chapter 1.

326.                  A Global Alliance Against Forced Labour. International Labour Organisation. 2005. 

327.                  Fortin, Jacey (January 16, 2013). "Mali's Other Crisis: Slavery Still Plagues Mali, And Insurgency Could Make It Worse". International Business Times.

328.                  Coursen-Neff, Zama; Tribune, International Herald (January 30, 2003). "For 15 million in India, a childhood of slavery". The New York Times. 

329.                  "Child Slaves Abandoned to India's Silk Industry". Human Rights Watch. January 23, 2003.

330.                  Žižek, Slavoj (2018). The Courage of Hopelessness: A Year of Acting Dangerously. Melville House. p. 29. 

331.                  "Global Slavery Index". globalslaveryindex.org. Retrieved February 14, 2015.

332.                  "India, China, Pakistan, Nigeria on slavery's list of shame". CNN. October 18, 2013.

333.                  "27 Million People Said to Live in 'Modern Slavery'". The New York Times. June 20, 2013.

334.                  DeLuca, Matthew (June 19, 2013). "'Modern-day slavery': State Dept. says millions of human trafficking victims go unidentified". NBC News.

335.                  Sebastian, Clare (July 30, 2018). "She escaped domestic slavery, now she helps other survivors". CNN.

336.                  Pinnell, Owen; Kelly, Jess (November 1, 2019). "Kuwait moves on Instagram slave traders after BBC investigation". BBC.

337.                  Pattisson, Pete (September 25, 2013). "Revealed: Qatar's World Cup 'slaves'". The Guardian.

338.                  Booth, Robert (March 24, 2016). "UN gives Qatar a year to end forced labour of migrant workers". The Guardian.

339.                  Helmore, Edward (July 19, 2018). "Over 400,000 people living in 'modern slavery' in U.S., report finds". The Guardian.

340.                  Tutton, Mark (July 19, 2018). "Modern slavery in developed countries more common than thought". CNN.

341.                  Myers, Steven Lee (November 25, 2017). "In China, the Brutality of 'House Arrest' (Published 2017)". The New York Times.

342.                  Xu, Vicky Xiuzhong; Cave, Danielle; Leiboid, James; Munro, Kelsey; Ruser, Nathan (February 2020). "Uyghurs for Sale". Australian Strategic Policy Institute.

343.                  "China: 83 major brands implicated in report on forced labour of ethnic minorities from Xinjiang assigned to factories across provinces; Includes company responses - Business & Human Rights Resource Centre". www.business-humanrights.org.

344.                  Quackenbush, Casey (December 1, 2017). "The Libyan Slave Trade Has Shocked the World. Here's What You Should Know". Time Magazine.

345.                  "African migrants 'sold in slave markets'". BBC News. April 11, 2017 – via bbc.com.

346.                  "African migrants sold as 'slaves' for $200 in Libya". Nation Media Group. Agence France-Presse. April 12, 2017.

347.                  Doctorow, Cory (April 11, 2017). "West African migrants are kidnapped and sold in Libyan slave markets". Boing Boing.

348.                  Adams, Paul (February 28, 2017). "Libya exposed as child migrant abuse hub". BBC News – via bbc.com.

349.                  "Immigrant Women, Children Raped, Starved in Libya's Hellholes: Unicef". February 28, 2017.

350.                  "Mauritanian MPs pass slavery law". BBC News. August 9, 2007.

351.                  "The Abolition season on BBC World Service". BBC News.

352.                  Sutter, John D. (March 2012). "Slavery's last stronghold". CNN.

353.                  "Mauritanian MPs pass slavery law". BBC News. August 9, 2007.

354.                  "UN: There is hope for Mauritania's slaves". CNN. March 17, 2012.

355.                  "Anti-slavery law still tough to enforce". The New Humanitarian. December 11, 2012.

356.                  "Issues North Korea". Amnesty International UK. Archived from the original on July 2, 2014.

357.                  "VII. Conclusions and Recommendations". Report of the Commission of Inquiry on Human Rights in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea. United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. February 17, 2014. p. 365. 

358.                  World Report 2014: North Korea. Human Rights Watch. January 21, 2014. 

359.                  "North Korea". Christian Solidarity Worldwide. 

360.                  "ICNK welcomes UN inquiry on North Korea report, calls for action". International Coalition to Stop Crimes Against Humanity in North Korea. February 20, 2014. 

361.                  "Economics and Slavery" (PDF). Du.edu.

362.                  Bradford, Laurence (July 23, 2013). "Modern day slavery in Southeast Asia: Thailand and Cambodia". Inside Investor.

363.                  "Trafficking FAQs – Amnesty International USA". Amnesty International. March 30, 2007. Archived from the original on July 8, 2009. Retrieved August 29, 2010.

364.                  Team, WNN Editors (December 5, 2008). "Lost Daughters – An ongoing tragedy in Nepal". Woman News Network (WNN

365.                 "US State Department Trafficking report". State.gov.

366.                  Haydon, Benjamin Robert (1841). "The Anti-Slavery Society Convention, 1840 - National Portrait Gallery". www.npg.org.uk. London. Donated by British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society in 1880

367.                  Clarence-Smith, William. "Religions and the abolition of slavery – a comparative approach" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on March 29, 2017. Retrieved August 28, 2013.

368.                  The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History. Cengage Learning. 2009. p. 165. 

369.                  Encyclopedia of Antislavery and Abolition. Greenwood Publishing Group. 2011. p. 155. 

370.                  Dussel, Enrique (January 4, 2021). "Bartolomé de Las Casas". Encyclopedia Britannica.

371.                  "Abolition Movement".

372.                  Green, Howard L. (1995). Words that Make New Jersey History: A Primary Source Reader. Rutgers University Press. p. 84.  1804: With passage of the law excerpted here, New Jersey became the last state in the North to abolish slavery.

373.                  Foner, Eric (December 30, 2007). "Opinion | Forgotten Step Toward Freedom (Published 2007)". The New York Times. 

374.                  "Soldiers and Sailors Database – The Civil War (U.S. National Park Service)". Itd.nps.gov. September 19, 2015.

375.                  Dwyer, Philip (2008). "Remembering and Forgetting in Contemporary France: Napoleon, Slavery, and the French History Wars". French Politics, Culture & Society. Berghahn Books. 26 (3): 110–122. 

376.                  Peabody, Sue (1984). "Race, Slavery, and the Law in Early Modern France". The Historian. Taylor & Francis. 56 (3): 501–510. 

377.                  Chatman, Samuel L. (2000). "'There are no Slaves in France': A Re-Examination of Slave Laws in Eighteenth Century France". The Journal of Negro History. The University of Chicago Press on behalf of the Association for the Study of African American Life and History. 85 (3): 144–153. 

378.                  Wise, Steven M. (2006). Though the Heavens May Fall: The Landmark Trial that Led to the End of Human Slavery. Pimlico. 

379.                  "Royal Navy and the Slave Trade : Battles : History : Royal Navy".

380.                  "Devon – Abolition – Sailing against slavery". BBC. February 28, 2007.

381.                  "The West African Squadron and slave trade". Pdavis.nl. Retrieved August 29, 2010.

382.                  "Anti-Slavery International: UNESCO Education". UNESCO. November 13, 2002.

383.                  "Home Page | Agrarian Studies" (PDF). Yale.edu.

384.                  "The law against slavery". BBC News.

385.                  Belardelli, Giulia (December 2, 2014). "Pope Francis And Other Religious Leaders Sign Declaration Against Modern Slavery". HuffPost.

386.                  Boahen, A. Adu.; Ajayi, J. F. Ade.; Tidy, Michael (1986). Topics in West African history (2 ed.). Burnt Mill, Harlow, Essex, England: Longman Group. 

387.                  "Afrikan Involvement In Atlantic Slave Trade, By Kwaku Person-Lynn, Ph. D". Africawithin.com.

388.                  Ball, Jeremy R. (November 2003), "Alcohol and Slaves", H-Net Reviews (Review),

389.                  Services, Tribune News. "BENIN OFFICIALS APOLOGIZE FOR ROLE IN U.S. SLAVE TRADE". chicagotribune.com.

390.                  "Blair 'sorry' for UK slavery role". BBC. March 14, 2007.

391.                  "Virginia 'sorry' for slavery role". BBC News. February 25, 2007.

392.                  Muir, Hugh (August 24, 2007). "Livingstone weeps as he apologises for slavery". The Guardian. London. 

393.                  Coslett, Paul (September 24, 2014). "Liverpool's slavery apology". BBC News. BBC.

394.                  "Congress Apologizes for Slavery, Jim Crow". NPR.org.

395.                  "Obama praises 'historic' Senate slavery apology". Agence France-Presse. June 19, 2009.

396.                  Nitkin, David; Merritt, Harry (March 2, 2007). "A New Twist to an Intriguing Family History". The Baltimore Sun.

397.                  Martin, Michael T.; Wall, David C. (February 19, 2013), "The Politics of Cine-Memory", A Companion to the Historical Film, Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing Ltd., pp. 445–467, 

398.                  Stokes, Melvyn (January 15, 2008). D.W. Griffith's The Birth of a Nation: A History of the Most Controversial Motion Picture of All Time. Oxford University Press. 

399.                  Morsberger, Robert E. (1977). "Slavery and 'The Santa Fe Trail,' or, John Brown on Hollywood's Sour Apple Tree". American Studies. 18 (2): 87–98.

400.                  Vera, Hernán; Gordon, Andrew M. (2003). Screen saviors: Hollywood fictions of whiteness. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 54–56. 

401.                  Worthington-Smith, Hammet; Deburg, William L. Van (1984). "Slavery & Race in American Popular Culture". Black American Literature Forum. 18 (4): 181

402.                 Davis 2002, Chapter 2.

403.                  Davis 2002, Chapter 3.

404.                  Mintz, Steven (1998). "Spielberg's Amistad and the History Classroom". The History Teacher. 31 (3): 370–73. 

405.                  Berlin, Ira (2004). "American Slavery in History and Memory and the Search for Social Justice". Journal of American History. 90 (4): 1251–68. 

406.                  "Films about Slavery and the transAtlantic Slave Trade". Ama. africatoday.com.

Bibliography

Surveys and reference

Books

·       Bales, Kevin (1999). Disposable People: New Slavery in the Global Economy. Berkeley: University of California Press. 

·       Bales, Kevin (2004). New slavery : a reference handbook (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. 

·       Beckert, Sven (2014). Empire of Cotton: A Global History. Knopf Doubleday. 

·       Campbell, Gwyn (2004). The Structure of Slavery in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia. London: Frank Cass. 

·       Campbell, Gwyn; Miers, Suzanne; Miller, Joseph Calder, eds. (2007). Women and Slavery: Africa, the Indian Ocean world, and the medieval north Atlantic. Vol. 1. Athens: Ohio University Press. 

·       Campbell, Gwyn; Miers, Suzanne; Miller, Joseph Calder, eds. (2008). Women and Slavery: The Modern Atlantic. Vol. 2. Athens: Ohio University Press. 

·       Davies, Stephen (2008). "Slavery, World". In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; Cato Institute. pp. 464–69. 

·       Davis, David Brion (1988) [1966]. The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 

·       Davis, David Brion (1999). The Problem of Slavery in the Age of Revolution, 1770–1823. Oxford University Press. 

·       Davis, Natalie Zemon (2002). Slaves on Screen: Film and Historical Vision. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 

·       Drescher, Seymour (2009). Abolition: A History of Slavery and Antislavery. Cambridge University Press. p. 281. 

·       Eden, Jeff (2018). Slavery and Empire in Central Asia. Cambridge University Press. 

·       Ellerman, David Patterson (1992). Property and Contract in Economics: The Case for Economic Democracy. Cambridge, Mass: Blackwell. 

·       Gordon, Murray (1989). Slavery in the Arab World. Rowman & Littlefield. 

·       Greene, Jacqueline Dembar (2001). Slavery in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. Turtleback Books. 

·       Lewis, Bernard (1992). Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry. New York: Oxford University Press. 

·       Miers, Suzanne; Kopytoff, Igor (1979). Slavery in Africa: Historical and Anthropological Perspectives. Madison: Univ of Wisconsin Press. 

·       Montejo, Esteban (April 15, 2016). Barnet, Miguel (ed.). Biography of a Runaway Slave: Fiftieth Anniversary Edition. Northwestern University Press. 

·       Morgan, Kenneth (2007). Slavery and the British Empire: From Africa to America. Oxford University Press. 

·       Postma, Johannes (2005). The Atlantic Slave Trade. University Press of Florida. 

·       Reséndez, Andrés (2016). The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. 

·       Rodriguez, Junius P. (1997). The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery. Vol. 1. Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO. 

·       Rodriguez, Junius P. (2007). Encyclopedia of Slave Resistance and Rebellion. Vol. 2. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. 

·       Rodriguez, Junius P. (2007). Slavery in the United States: A Social, Political, and Historical Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO. 

·       Shell, Robert Carl-Heinz (1994). Children of Bondage: A Social History of the Slave Society at the Cape of Good Hope, 1652-1838. Hanover, NH: University Press of New England [for] Wesleyan University Press. 

·       Westermann, William Linn (1955). The Slave Systems of Greek and Roman Antiquity. American Philosophical Society. 

Journal articles and reviews

·       Bartlett, Will (May 1994). "Review: Property and Contract in Economics". Economic and Industrial Democracy. 15 (2): 296–298. 

·       Burczak, Theodore (June 2001). "Ellerman's Labor Theory of Property and the Injustice of Capitalist Exploitation". Review of Social Economy. 59 (2): 161–183. 

·       Devine, Pat (November 1, 1993). "Review: Property and Contract in Economics". Economic Journal. 103 (421): 1560–1561. 

·       Lawson, Colin (1993). "Review: Property and Contract in Economics". The Slavonic and East European Review. 71 (4): 792–793. 

·       Lutz, Mark A. (1995). "Book Reviews: Property and Contract in Economics". Review of Social Economy. 53 (1): 141–147. 

·       Pole, J. R. (June 1977). "Review: Slavery and Revolution: The Conscience of the Rich". The Historical Journal. 20 (2): 503–513. 

·       Smith, Stephen C. (December 1994). "Property and Contract in Economics". Journal of Comparative Economics. 19 (3): 463–466. 

·       Woltjer, Geert (March 1996). "Book review: Property and Contract in Economics". European Journal of Law and Economics. 3 (1): 109–112. United States

·       Baptist, Edward (2016). The Half Has Never Been Told: Slavery and the Making of American Capitalism. 

·       Beckert, Sven; Rockman, Seth, eds. (2016). Slavery's Capitalism: A New History of American Economic Development. University of Pennsylvania Press. 

·       Berlin, Ira (2009). Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America. Harvard University Press. 

·       Berlin, Ira; Favreau, Marc; Miller, Steven (2011). Remembering Slavery: African Americans Talk About Their Personal Experiences of Slavery and Freedom. New Press. 

·       Blackmon, Douglas A. (2012). Slavery by Another Name: The re-enslavement of black americans from the civil war to World War Two. Icon Books Limited. 

·       Boles, John B. (2015). Black Southerners, 1619–1869. University Press of Kentucky. p. 3. 

·       Engerman, Stanley Lewis (1999). Terms of Labor: Slavery, Serfdom, and Free Labor. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. 

·       Forbes, Robert P. (1998). "Slavery and the Evangelical Movement". In McKivigan, John R.; Snay, Mitchell (eds.). Religion and the Antebellum Debate Over Slavery. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press. pp. 68–106. 

·       Genovese, Eugene D. (2011). Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. 

·       King, Richard H.; Genovese, Eugene (1977). "Marxism and the Slave South". American Quarterly. 29 (1): 117. 

·       Mintz, S. "Slavery Facts & Myths". Digital History.

·       Morgan, Edmund Sears (1975). American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia. New York: Norton. 

·       Parish, Peter J. (1989). Slavery: History and Historians. New York: Westview Press.  Parish, Peter J. (February 1, 2018). Slavery: History And Historians. Routledge. 

·       Phillips, Ulrich Bonnell (1918). American Negro Slavery: A Survey of the Supply, Employment and Control of Negro Labor as Determined by the Plantation Régime. D. Appleton. p. 1.

·       Phillips, Ulrich Bonnell (2007). Life and Labor in the Old South. Univ of South Carolina Press. 

·       Sellers, James Benson (1994). Slavery in Alabama. University of Alabama Press. 

·       Stampp, Kenneth Milton (1969). The Peculiar Institution: Slavery in the Antebellum South. A.A. Knopf.

·       Trenchard, David (2008). "Slavery in America". In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; Cato Institute. pp. 469–70. 

·       Vorenberg, Michael (May 21, 2001). Final Freedom: The Civil War, the Abolition of Slavery, and the Thirteenth Amendment. Cambridge University Press. 

·       Weinstein, Allen; Gatell, Frank Otto; Sarasohn, David, eds. (1979). American Negro Slavery: A Modern Reader. Oxford University Press. 

Further reading

·       Heuman, Gad J. (2003). The Slavery Reader. Psychology Press

·       Hogendorn, Jan; Johnson, Marion (2003). The Shell Money of the Slave Trade. Cambridge University Press. 

·       Resendez, Andres (2016). The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 448. External links

Historical

·       Slavery in America: A Resource Guide at the Library of Congress

·       Digital Library on American Slavery at University of North Carolina at Greensboro

·       "Slavery Fact Sheets". Digital History. University of Houston.

·       The West African Squadron and slave trade, history of the Victorian Royal Navy

·       Slavery and the Making of America at WNET

·       "Understanding Slavery". Discovery Education.

·       Slavery archival sources, University of London, Senate House Library

·       Mémoire St Barth (archives & history of slavery, slave trade and their abolition), Comité de Liaison et d'Application des Sources Historiques 2010

·       Archives of the Middelburgsche Commercie Compagnie (MCC), 1720-1889 'Trade Company of Middelburg', Inventory of the archives of the Dutch slave trade across the Atlantic (in Dutch)

·       Slave Ships and the Middle Passage at Encyclopedia Virginia

·       The Trans-Atlantic and Intra-American slave trade databases at Emory University